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RAILWAY WONDERS OF THE WORLD
THE L 33ARY OF THE
THE RAILWAY PATHFINDERS.
In searching for a route through rugged mountainous country the man with the transit and level often has to be slung on a crazy log platform over a raging torrent.
Railway Wonders of the World
By
Frederick A. Talbot
Aurhor of " The Railway Conquest of tlw '
"The New Garden of Canada," "The Making <>< » * ri
Illustrated with Colour Plates and Photographs
Cassell and Company, Limited
London, New York, Toronto and Melbourne
THE RAILWAY PATHFINDERS.
In searching for a route through rugged mountainous country the man with the trans, level often has to be slung on a crazy log platform over a raging torrent.
Railway Wonders of the World
By
Frederick A. Talbot
Author of " The Railway Conquest of the World," " Motor-Cars and Their Story," "The New Garden of Canada," "The Making of a Great Canadian Railway," etc. etc.
Illustrated with Colour Plates and Photographs
Cassell and Company, Limited
London, New York, Toronto and Melbourne
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CONTENTS
PAGE
AERIAL MOUNTAIN RAILWAYS .......... 35
ARTICULATED LOCOMOTIVE, A NEW AND NOVEL ...... 27
AVALANCHE, COMBATING THE ...... ... 368
BOILER, A SAFETY LOCOMOTIVE .......... 82
BRIDGE, A TELESCOPIC DOUBLE-LIFT ........ 54
BUILDING THE WORLD'S LOFTIEST BRIDGE ....... 19
CANADA, THE OPENING UP OF ..... ... 348
CANADIAN PACIFIC RAILWAY, THE . . . . . . . . 87, 193
COMBATING THE AVALANCHE .......... 368
DEATH VALLEY, THE CONQUEST OF ........ 144
DOUBLE-ENDED LOCOMOTIVE, THE " FAIRLIE " . . ... 244
ELECTRIC GIANTS OF EUROPE, SOME ........ 340
ETERNAL SNOWS BY RAIL, To THE ........ 359
" FAIRLIE " DOUBLE-ENDED LOCOMOTIVE, THE ...... 244
FAMOUS EXPRESSES ........... 331
FIRST EUROPEAN RACK MOUNTAIN RAILWAY, THE ...... 203
FLOATING RAILWAYS . . . . . . . . . . 113, 170
FORTH BRIDGE, THE ........... 264
FROM FAILURE TO FORTUNE : THE STORY OF A GREAT TRANSCONTINENTAL RAILWAY 250
GETTING OUT OF TIGHT CORNERS ......... 133
GLACIERS, THE MASTERY OF THE ......... 220
GOLD COAST, THE RAILWAY INVASION OF THE ...... 60
GREAT TRANSCONTINENTAL RAILWAY, THE STORY OF A . . . . . 250 — -
GREAT WESTERN RAILWAY, THE . . . . . . . . .157
" ICE RAILWAY " LOCOMOTIVE, AN . . . . . . . . . 151
•7
LABOUR- 'AND TIME-SAVING TRACK-LAYER AND ITS WORK, THE ... 73
LANGEN SUSPENSION RAILWAY, THE ........ 325
LOCOMOTIVE GIANTS .......... 45, 210
LOTSCHBERG TUNNEL, THE .......... 101
MASTERY OF THE GLACIERS, THE ......... 220
MOST WONDERFUL NARROW GAUGE RAILWAY IN THE WORLD, THE . . . 297
X
<x MOUNTAIN RAILWAY, THE FIRST EUROPEAN RACK ...... 203
frr MOUNTAIN RAILWAYS, AERIAL ......... 35
NARROW GAUGE RAILWAY, THE MOST WONDERFUL IN THE WORLD . . . 297 NEW AND NOVEL ARTICULATED LOCOMOTIVE, A . . . . . .27
OPENING Up OF CANADA, THE . ... 348
423317
vi CONTENTS
PAGE
PIKE'S PEAK RACK RAILWAY, THE ........ '277
RACK MOUNTAIN RAILWAY, THE FIRST EUROPEAN ...... 203
RACK RAILWAY, THE PIKE'S PEAK ........ 277
RAILWAY BUILDERS' HEAVY ARTILLERY, THE . . . . . . . 123
RAILWAY IN SIAM, THE ........... 284
RAILWAY IN WILD CHINA, THE . . . . . . . . .176
RAILWAY INVASION OF THE GOLD COAST, THE ...... 60
RAILWAY SEARCHLIGHTS . . . . . . . . . . .186
SAFETY LOCOMOTIVE BOILER, A ......... 82
SEARCHLIGHTS, RAILWAY. .......... 186
SIAM, THE RAILWAY IN ........... 284
SIGNALLING WITHOUT SEEING THE TRAINS ....... 309
SIXTY-MINUTE " FLYERS," Two FAMOUS ........ 95
SPENDING MILLIONS TO SAVE MINUTES ........ 1
STEAM v. ELECTRICITY ........... 235
.STORY OF A GREAT TRANSCONTINENTAL RAILWAY, THE ..... 250
SUSPENSION RAILWAY, THE LANGEN ........ 325
TELESCOPIC DOUBLE-LIFT BRIDGE, A ........ 54
To THE ETERNAL SNOWS BY RAIL ......... 359
TRACK-LAYER AND ITS WORK, THE LABOUR- AND TIME-SAVING .... 73
Two FAMOUS SIXTY-MINUTE " FLYERS " . . . . . . . .95
WILD CHINA, THE RAILWAY IN ......... 176
WORLD'S LOFTIEST BRIDGE, BUILDING THE ....... 19
" WRECKERS " AND THEIR CRANES, THE ........ 315
LIST OF COLOURED PLATES
THE RAILWAY PATHFINDERS ... .... Frontispiece
Facing page THE WETTERHORN AERIAL RAILWAY . . ..... 35
BRITAIN'S FAMOUS SIXTY-MINUTE FLYER, " THE SOUTHERN BELLE " . .95
THE STEAM SHOVEL, THE RAILWAY BUILDERS' MOST SERVICEABLE TOOL . . 123 THE FLOODING OF THE SEVERN TUNNEL ........ 156
THREADING THE GRAND CANYON OF THE FRASER .... • 193
STEAM v. ELECTRICITY ......... • 235
FILLING IN A TRESTLE BY HYDRAULIC SLUICING .... . 252
BRITAIN'S ENGINEERING TRIUMPH : THE FORTH BRIDGE . . . 273
THE WRECKING CRANE AT WORK . . . . . . . .315
THREE LONDON AND SOUTH WESTERN EXPRESSES AT BATTLEDOWN JUNCTION . 331 THE CONQUEST OF THE AVALANCHE ........ 369
RAILWAY WONDERS OF THE
WORLD
Foreword
O invention since the march of civilisation began has changed the map of the world so completely as that of George Stephenson. No other pro- duction of the human brain has introduced such a power- ful force of conquest, development, ex- pansion, and settlement as the railway.
The opening up of new countries and territories by the steel highway consti- tutes the greatest romance in the world's history. It has shrunk time and distance, has created new cities, has brought aridity to fertility, has peopled the wilderness, has subjugated the mountain, and has let light into the forest. Swamp and desert, sea and snow, mountain and gulch have been vanquished in its irresistible advance.
The brain and blood, thew and muscle, nerve and soul which have been sacrificed in this conquest never can be forgotten ; the men who fell in the great effort to drive this great civilising influence forward have built an imperishable monument which time cannot destroy.
The plotting and building of the great railways of the world make one long story of exciting adventure, exacting hardship and toil, and of prodigious difficulty overcome. In the narration of this romance I have been assisted by many of those who have been engaged in weaving this network of steel along which flows the commerce of the world.
The railway constitutes a prolific field for inventive effort. There are various side issues associated with the main
vin
FOREWORD
problem of building the road, and these have been incorporated. The primitive tools., the pick and shovel, have been superseded by wonderful time- and labour- saving mechanical devices, which expedite and facilitate the work of the builder. Then the cry for additional railway facili- ties, which is raised on all sides, has been responsible for the production of improved, quicker, and cheaper methods of opera- tion. This question has stimulated the evolution of bigger and more powerful locomotives, larger freight wagons, more capacious passenger coaches : the cry for the annihilation of time and distance has animated the struggle for higher travel- ling speeds with safety. All these factors are described in due course.
During the past few years the struggle for supremacy between steam and elec- tricity as a motive power has become exceedingly acute. The attempts which are being made, and the successes achieved, in this direction have received their meed of attention.
In the early days the towering mountain range was considered a well-nigh impass- able barrier. Nowadays the engineer does not worry himself as to how to climb over the obstacle : he plunges boldly through its base. Or he lays a peculiar track up its precipitous flanks, whereby passengers may be conveyed in safety to otherwise inaccessible eyries, to gaze upon majestic panoramas of glacial scenery.
The turbulent, wandering river, the mud- flat, the dismal desert, and the hurricane- ravaged islet worry the technical mind sorely, and marvellous ingenuity is dis- played in their conquest. When all known methods of meeting the situation become exhausted, and prove futile, then new ways and means have to be devised. As a result many startling wonders are wrought.
The present generation has become so accustomed to the railway that it regards it somewhat with indifference. Yet it is difficult to realise how the world rolled
along before George Stephenson's inven- tion appeared upon the scene. If this planet were robbed suddenly of all its railways, a catastrophe almost as terrible as that arising from the deprivation of its sunlight would be precipitated. This familiarity has served to obscure the glamour and romance associated with construction.
Obviously it would be impossible to relate the incidents and episodes asso- ciated with every one of the 800,000 miles of steel track enmeshing this globe. I have made merely a selection of the great roads between the two Poles, some of which per- haps are better known than others.
Technicalities have been simplified pur- posely, as this work is not written for the master of craft, but more particularly for those generally interested in railways, financially or otherwise. Particular in- sistence has been centred upon the many peculiar forms which the resistance of Nature has assumed to frustrate puny human endeavour, and the methods elaborated to cope with unusual situa- tions.
Notwithstanding a century's progress, railways are yet in their infancy. New construction is more active to-day than ever. Still, while new lines are being thrown out in all directions, and in accord- ance with the most modern and approved principles of railway engineering, the pioneer roads are not being neglected. Competition is demanding their overhaul and improvement, and in many instances a steel highway has been changed out of all recognition in the attempt to eliminate the blunders and mistakes made in the first place. In fact, more money is being expended in the reconstruction of existing railways than in the prosecution of new undertakings. This transforma- tion forms quite as attractive a story as that of original construction, and there- fore is deserving of inclusion among " Railway Wonders of the World."
RE-ALIGNMENT OF THE CANADIAN PACIFIC RAILWAY THROUGH KICKING HORSE PASS. View showing the amazing location of the new line and spiral tunnels. The old line runs through the centre. The new line doubled the distance (8.2 miles), but halved the grade (2.2 per cent. — 116 ft. per mile).
Spending Millions to Save Minutes
MANY GREAT RAILWAYS IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE WORLD HAVE HAD TO BE RECONSTRUCTED TO MEET MODERN REQUIREMENTS
N the early days of railway building engineers were given very few opportunities to display their genius and skill. Money was scarce, and the craving for this system of transportation among the pub- lic, after it had survived the first wave of prejudice, was so insistent that the lines had to be laid with the utmost possible dispatch. Accordingly, the lines were laid without any regard to gradients and curves. If a hill stood in his path the engineer did not pause to drive his way through the obstruc- tion ; he either ran round or over it. A line built upon this system certainly was an amazing piece of work, as it followed the inequalities of the ground, and twisted in loops and curves like a drawn-out spiral spring.
In the course of a few years, however, the original lines broke down completely
under the increased traffic, or were in danger of extinction by better-built and later rivals. In frantic haste the engineer was seized and told to straighten out the original track, so as to permit faster run- ning and heavier loads with less expense. So far as Great Britain is concerned, there has been little evidence of elaborate re- modelling. The railway was a product of this country, and the men who evolved the invention, as a result of their years of patient experimenting, were more familiar with the possibilities of this method of transportation than those who embraced it afterwards. Some of our railways, how- ever, have short sections of steep grades and sharp curves which have not been abolished yet. The most striking instance, perhaps, is afforded in Cornwall, where, for year after year, the Great Western Railway found the tortuous rising and falling line built by Brunei a heavy drag
RAILWAY WONDERS OF THE WORLD
upon its service. The expresses were able to thunder over the 225f miles between London and Plymouth at a speed of 54.9 miles an hour ; but on the continuation of the journey through Cornwall to Penzancc the speed dropped to 30 miles per hour. The development of the Cornish health and pleasure resorts demanded higher speed between Plymouth and Penzance, as well as heavier trains. This, however, was im- possible under existing conditions, so the company, without more ado, set to work to
DIAGRAM SHOWING THE RE-ALIGNMENT OF THE CANADIAN PACIFIC RAILWAY THROUGH KICKING HORSE PASS.
pull out Brunei's line : flattening his grades, easing his curves, rebuilding his bridges, and laying a double track. In this manner it has been possible to bring the Cornish tail up to the standard of the rest of the system. But the expense has been enor- mous.
But this work of remodelling is revealed in its most compelling form in other countries, especially in the United States and Canada. In both instances the first lines were laid hurriedly and cheaply in order to open up the country, or to link together towns which were isolated hun- dreds of miles apart. The sleepers were thrown on the ground and the rails " tacked " to them. The engineer, having plenty of elbow room, wandered hither and thither with his permanent way, in order to complete construction quickly.
The majority of these early roads are in service to-day, but so improved as to defy recognition by those who carried them out in the first place. Summit levels have
been reduced by driving tunnels at lower elevations, so as to avoid tedious, labori- ous climbs and waste of engine power ; chords have been cut across loops to reduce distances ; bridges have been thrown across rifts and ravines which originally were avoided by detours ; and banks have been lowered. Mr. E. H. Harriman, when he was called before the Interstate Com- merce Commission, expressed the opinion that every American railway would require to be rebuilt, and it is estimated that over £200,000,000 has been ex- pended in the task of re- construction. The expense of overhauling many of the lines has exceeded the initial cost of building them. The American railway controllers have not been by any means parsimonious in their enter- prise. Miles of lines have been abandoned in favour of easier new routes, and traveller, as he wanders about the continent, can see long lengths of these derelicts rusting in the sand, overgrown with weeds, or undergoing burial by rock and land slides.
Nowadays curves and grades are vora- cious. The waste they represent is tre- mendous. There is a single curve on a busy continental road just outside Chicago which represents a dead loss of £40 a day to its company. Another line lifted dips and lowered rises in the permanent way, as well as straightened out curves, for a dis- tance of sixty miles, so as to secure high speeds and to hold its own against com- petition. The Lake Shore and Michigan Railway was handicapped sorely by the meandering of lj miles of line near La Porte, Indiana. The engineers overcame the drawback by pulling the faulty sec- tion to pieces and laying a straightcr and faster length of track ; but it cost them £50,000 to achieve their end.
In connection with this reconstruction
the vigilant
RE-ALIGNING THE FIELD TO HECTOR SECTION OF THE CANADIAN PACIFIC RAILWAY. Field, the western portal to Kicking Horse Pass, and bottom of the " Big Hill." The railway hugs
the foot of the mountains.
RAILWAY WONDERS OF THE WORLD
work some startling and prodigious achieve- ments have been and are being consum- mated.
When the Canadian Pacific Railway was built from coast to coast the practice which
had governed the building of the '*• first American transcontinental
road was followed : the line was flimsily built, the governing considerations being completion in the minimum of time with the lowest possible cost. But the inevitable happened. The line was over- taxed, and overhauling had to be taken in hand without delay. The most serious ob- stacle was in the Rocky Mountains. Here the constructional engineers, in order to avoid expense, had introduced a bank 4.1 miles in length with a grade of 4.5 per cent. — 237.6 feet per mile. It was so steep that it became known throughout the system as the "Big Hill." It arose from the suddenness with which the ground falls away through the Kicking Horse Valley between Hector and Field.
The Big Hill came to be dreaded by all the drivers who ran through the Rockies. When they reached the top of Negotiating the bank they shut off steam lg and tried their brakes. They
descended by sheer gravity, applying the brakes now and again to keep the train in check. Switches were intro- duced here and there, and the switchman listened attentively for the approaching train. If the whistle tooted a certain signal the main line^as left open, but if the whistle blared out another cry the switchman knew that the train had got out of control ; he promptly opened the switch, and turned the runaway into a bank. One driver who had handled the heavy freight trains which go down to Vancouver gave me his opinion that " running down the Big Hill licked a lottery to fits. You were certain to hit the bottom of the valley all right, but whether via the railway tracks or in a bee-line through the air it was impossible to say ! " As may be
supposed, derailments were by no means infrequent.
While the run down the Big Hill was full of excitement to the freight train, the ascent was trying to the Overland mail. The train, as How the
a rule, weighed about 710 ",?vfr!fnl"
climbed the tons, and a bank such as this Big Hill.
was too much for a single engine. At Field they kept a full stable of " pusher " locomotives, monsters of their day, of the 2-8-0 class, and turning the scale at 74 tons apiece. Two, four, five, and even six engines have been requisitioned to lift the mail over that hump, and the roaring and belching as the locomotives struggled up at a crawl of five or six miles per hour transformed the rock- strewn, snow-walled Kicking Horse Valley into a veritable Inferno. When the line was first built it was indifferently bal- lasted, but the Big Hill became the best-laid piece of track in the mountains — it became packed with the half-consumed coal and ashes ejected from the locomotives as they snorted and struggled up the incline under their loads.
The " Overland " going up the Big Hill certainly was an impressive spectacle, but it was poor business. The railway company were aware of this fact ; just how much it cost them to handle the trains over this fearsome bank only they themselves know. At last the management decided to elim- inate this drag upon the high efficiency of their system. " The railway must be re- aligned through the Kicking Horse Pass. Never mind what it costs." This was the official ultimatum to the engineers, and Mr. J. Schwitzer sallied out to fulfil the com- mands. He searched every nook and cranny of this wild, forbidding stretch of the mountains, and finally came home with the best scheme that engineering science could offer to deal with a differ- ence of 952-5 feet in a handful of 4.1 miles.
It was a daring proposal, and it intro- duced an ingenious solution of a difficult
SPENDING MILLIONS TO SAVE MINUTES
problem, which, though common in Europe, was quite new to the American continent. He decided to use the same device as Hellwag had adopted to secure extrica- tion from a similar tight corner on the St. Gotthard railway : the spiral tunnel.
in length, and therein the train completes a corkscrew twist, emerging into daylight almost directly over the portal, some feet below, by which it entered the mountain. It then runs along the Kicking Horse Val- ley, crosses the river, doubling back upon
LOOKING THROUGH THE KICKING HORSE GULCH. The new line of the Canadian Pacific in the foreground.
Fhe Kicking Horse Gulch did not give much ;lbow room for the work ; but Schwitzer xitlined a plan which, although it doubled ;he mileage through the pass, yet reduced ;he gradient exactly by one-half. The scheme was daring, but was carried out. [n entering the pass from the west the rail- way plunges into a tunnel 170 feet long inder Wapta Mountain. Then it swings iway from the old line, which traverses ;hc centre of the pass, cuts across the Kicking Horse River, and burrows into the jase of Mount Ogdcn on the opposite side >f the ravine. This tunnel is 2,012 feet
itself, running almost parallel with the first part of the line, but in the r<Jfcrse direc- tion, to gain the opposite side of the valley once more, where it penetrates Mount Stephen to describe another elliptic curve in a tunnel 3,184 feet long. Regaining daylight, the line doubles back on itself once again, until it meets the point where the ^second line in the zigzag crossed the old line, which is now re- joined. It is a railway maze, the line doubling upon itself twice and crossing the river twice, in order to reduce the severity of the incline.
RAILWAY WONDERS OF THE WORLD
The total length of the new line is 8.2 miles, and in no place is the gradient heavier
than 1 in 45.45 feet. In the The Spiral j } t d hi h have &
Tunnels.
curvature of 573 feet radius,
it was found possible to give an easy grade. In the completion of the work 700 men found employment. The two spiral tunnels were driven from each end simultane- ously, compressed air rock-drills being used to break down the rock, which, being of silicious limestone, somewhat facilitated rapid progress.
Here and there searching difficulties were encountered. The rock was found to be fissured, so that water gained an entrance into the workings ; but the pumps proved able to cope with the inflow. In other instances treacherous layers of shale were struck, and heavy timbering had to be adopted, and a concrete lining afterwards completed. When the work was com- menced hand labour was used for removing the spoil dislodged by the blasts, but this proved so inadequate that powerful steam shovels were brought up, and they kept pace with the drills and dynamite. These shovels were driven by compressed air, so as not to foul the workings.
Work was maintained at high pressure the whole time, the tunnels being bril- liantly lighted, so that exca- vation might continue night and day uninterruptedly, while in the open workings oil flares served sufficiently to illumine the scene through the hours of darkness to enable progress to be maintained. At times there was a shortage of men, especially among the unskilled labourers, who, after staying a short while, and having amassed a tempt- ing nest-egg, hied on their way to the Pacific coast, where they could command higher pay for the sweat of their brow. Despite these hindrances, however, the task was completed in about nineteen months, by which time over £250,000 had been expended, of which sum £50,000
vanished in smoke alone, as 1,500,000 pounds of dynamite, sufficient to fill seventy-five box cars, were consumed. But the reconstruction has repaid the Canadian Pacific Railway Company. Whereas formerly a battery of powerful locomotives was required to handle a train weighing 710 tons, now a train weighing 980 tons can be handled easily by a double-header at a speed of 20 miles an hour. Not only is the cost of working over this section reduced by over 60 per cent., but there is an improved time schedule, while a greater degree of safety is secured to the travelling public.
When the engineer is called upon to thread a forbidding rugged mountain range, he generally takes advantage of the natural paths to carry him through the obstacle. A river is an ideal channel, although it may possess the drawbacks of wandering apparently aimlessly among the precipi- tous crags, making sharp twists and bends. The latter, however, can generally be cir- cumvented by driving short cuts with tunnels across the loops. As a rule, how- ever, the waterway is constricted, and will occupy the whole floor of the gorge, while its level fluctuates wildly. In the spring it is a babbling brook rolling peacefully along ; but in the late summer, when the torrid sun melts the snow on the peaks, causing rivulets and creeks to dance down the cliff sides into the main channel, then the waterway rises suddenly to a high level, and tears along fiendishly, sweeping all before it.
Such a situation faced the engineer when he was called upon to carry the railway
through Eagle Canyon, Col-
' . Railway
orado, tor the Denver and through
Rio Grande system. He Eagle Canyon, searched the ravine, and Colorado- found a convenient ledge, which he seized here and there, smoothed it off, and laid down his metals. It is a V-shaped rift, with the mountains hurrying skywards on
SPENDING MILLIONS TO SAVE MINUTES
either hand from the waterway. But the ledge afforded a foundation. Where it was interrupted by knots of rock the engineer either blew them away to the width he desired or tunnelled them — whichever was easier, cheaper, and quicker. He strength- ened his rampart where it was weak with a massive stone wall, and entertained no apprehensions that his work would be washed away when the turbulent Eagle River rose in flood.
But in course of time the single track used for both up and down traffic became in- adequate. The Goulds got control of the line, and, what was more, at the end of thirty odd years achieved the height of their ambitions : they had a connection running to the Pacific — the Western Pacific Railway. A new source of traffic was tapped, to carry which rendered a second pair of metals through Eagle Canyon imperative.
The engineer was commanded to double
track the line for six miles through the
gulch. It seemed a simple
P°uble.T5"cking task to fulfil> but he had
different notions. The existing ledge was just wide enough to take the one pair of rails and no more. The shelf could not be widened very cheaply, as it meant trimming back the toes of the cliffs somewhat heavily. There was another similar though not so well denned ledge on the opposite side of the river. He decided to press that to his aid.
The first thing was to control the water- way, to keep it within bounds, so that it could not thunder, foam, and tumble where it pleased. He threw up a massive masonry wall. In so doing he drove the water back somewhat, but to guard against all risk, the existing ridge was fortified with new masonry here and there. The result is that to-day the Eagle River ripples or rushes, according to its mood, along a big ditch, fenced in on either side by a heavy, well-built masonry wall, which
through the Canyon.
defies the waterway's most violent out- bursts of frenzy.
By being compelled to take to the oppo- site side of the river for his second line, the engineer was brought face
to face with another obstacle.
Dodging the
Avalanche.
The cliffs are steep, but here
and there they are scarred by wide gullies filled with loose rubble and detri- tus. These are the tracks of avalanches, rock-slides, and landslips. They are well defined, and the movements follow these passages every year, as certainly as night follows day. These destructive forces had to be avoided ; accordingly the engineer swung his line across the waterway to the existing shelf, widening it out to suit his purpose. At places the ledge was inter- rupted by a spur which dropped sheer into the water. If it was not too formidable, the engineer blew the mass out of the way ; in other instances he tunnelled it.
It was a stupendous task, and by the time the two sets of rails had been laid a
distance of five miles £100,000
ij. T7- . -. Five Miles,
had been spent. Yet it was -
£100,000.
considered to be well invested, because it enabled double the traffic, at least, to be handled through the rift. As the engineer, in building the second track, kept down the grade, and made the curves easy, it was selected for east- bound trains, as there was less resist- ance to the locomotives, which had to overcome a rise of 116 feet as compared with 174.24 feet per mile on the old line. Originally it was intended to rebuild the pioneer track with flatter inclines ; but as its steep grade is in favour of westbound traffic, it has been retained.
This selfsame system has groaned for years under the handicap of a big hump which was introduced in the early days between Tucker and Soldier Summit, in order to carry the railway across the Wasatch Mountains, Utah, into Salt Lake City. It was a serious obstacle to economic and rapid operation, since the drag is seven
8
RAILWAY WONDERS OF THE WORLD
DOUBLE-TRACKING THROUGH EAGLE CANYON. COLORADO.
The second pair of metals had to be laid on the opposite side of the river — on the right — for five miles at a cost of £100,000. The " Limited " is descending the old track.
miles in length, and the gradient is 4 per cent. — 211 feet per mile. In other words, the train had to rise 12 inches for every 25 feet it advanced.
Stalls of pusher and header locomotives were kept in readiness at the bottom of the hump to give a passing train a lift. When the " Fast Denver Limited " was being put over the bank the, spectacle was thril- ling. This magnificent crack train is made up of eleven heavy Pullman cars, and in order to maintain the speed and to keep time up the hill, five engines had to be called into service, four monsters tugging for all they were worth, with a fifth push- ing just as hard at the rear. When the rails were greasy under snow or drizzling rain, even this collection of engine power
experienced a stiff struggle to keep up the regular speed.
The hump was tolerated until the close of 1912, when President Bush and Vice- President Brown, of the railway system, laid their heads together and decided to cut it out at all costs. Such drastic action was imperative. The Western Pacific was open, giving Denver a new outlet at San Francisco.
The business over this new artery is increasing rapidly, and at the same time the mineral traffic is rising by leaps and bounds, owing to the enormous shipments of coal and coke from the Utah mines to the Salt Lake, Nevada, and Montana smelting and reduction plants, which have become busier owing to the provision of
SPENDING MILLIONS TO SAVE MINUTES
improved transport facilities offered by the Western Pacific Railway. The Denver and Rio Grande Railway plays a prominent part in this development, so the overhaul of the Soldier Summit Hump on its main through line could not be delayed.
In response to official instructions, the engineers located a new route, which, al- though increasing the distance between the two points from seven to fifteen miles, at the same time presented half the grade, and a reduction in the curvature. The adminis- tration decided to accept this solution, and a contract was made immediately for the cutting out of the hump. By means of the new track the rise is brought down to only 1 in 50 — the maximum on the Denver and Rio Grande main line system.
The cost of these fifteen miles of new line was unavoidably heavy, the contract with the Utah Construction Company, one of the great railway building forces of the Middle West, being for £300,000, or £20,000 per mile. The railway, however, called for a double, instead of a single line, the old road being abandoned completely. The revision work was of an exceedingly ardu- ous character, the revised route running through heavily undulating country. Al- though no bridges were necessary, several concrete arches were required, together with one tunnel, 255 feet in length. The track is heavily ballasted, and is laid with 90 Ib. steel rails.
One of the most striking instances of the endeavour to straighten out a railway built
DOUBLE-TRACKING THROUGH EAGLE CANYON, COLORADO.
View of the shelf prepared for the new track, showing heavy masonry wall to keep the river
within bounds.
10
RAILWAY WONDERS OF THE WORLD
in a hurry was on the Delaware, Lacka-
wanna and Western Railroad. As in the
case of other systems of to-
The day, this railway had a modest
Lackawanna , , ,.
Cut-off beginning, but as time pro-
gressed it threw out additional tentacles ; absorbed short lines that stood in the way ; and these threads were welded into a homogeneous whole. An intricate network of lines stretching from the Great Lakes to the Atlantic seaboard, and pene- trating the rich coal areas of the Eastern States has been' woven in this manner.
The district threaded is very mountain- ous, and the original engineers ran their lines through the natural cracks in the mountains, paying no regard to the big detours, and troubling little about grades and curves. The result was that when later railways penetrated this rich terri- tory with straighter, flatter, and shorter routes the original system found its traffic threatened.
This menace assumed serious propor- tions. Between Hopatcong and Delaware Gap the company possessed
Sharp Curves as bad a stretch of 39|
and Heavy .,
Gradients miles as could have been
built. It abounded in curves which, in the aggregate, described fifteen and a half circles, representing nearly 13 miles, while grades ran up as high as 60 feet per mile. These conditions limited the load per locomotive to thirty cars, as- compared with seventy-five similar wagons which were hauled by one engine on competitive roads.
Such a disadvantage could not be tolerated. Accordingly the engineer was called in and told by President Truesdale to find a shorter cut between the two points at any cost. Accordingly a new route was discovered showing a saving of 11 miles, the wiping out of four and a third circles of curvature, and a grade reduction to 29 feet per mile at an estimated cost of approximately £2,000,000.
Despite the alarming proportions of the
cost, the engineer estimated that one hour could be clipped off the running time of the goods trains, and twenty minutes off the schedule for the' expresses ; and that the saving in working and maintenance charges would be sufficient to defray inter- est on £2,100,000. Thus the engineer was on the right side, and accordingly was told to "go ahead."
It was a daring scheme. Here were 39£ miles to be wiped out of existence and a new line, 28| miles, to be built at
something like £66,000 per mile. £66'°°.?
per Mile.
Mr. G. J. Ray, the engineer-in- chief, ventured to me his opinion that this " work is the heaviest per mile of any large railway ever undertaken in the United States." The earth and rock excavation averaged about 500,000 cubic yards per mile.
This will afford some idea of what was entailed in carrying out the Lackawanri Cut-off, as it was called. There was a heavy premium on the services of dyna- mite and steam shovels. The cuts were amazing ; the embankments startling There was one wide valley among the tumbling ridges, which ran transversely to the location. " How was that to be filled ? " asked the farmers in the depres- sion. " By an embankment," retorted the engineer, and before the agriculturists in the valley realised the significance of this work, overtures were being made to buy out their farms. The base width of an embankment ranging from 75 to 110 feet high would be too great to be accommo- dated in the ordinary right-of-way, while, had the railway purchased just the neces- sary strip of land, such little pieces of farms would have been left that they would not have been worth cultivation. The farmers accordingly were compensated with big cheques for their property, and went off to pastures new, while the railway engineers set to work building up the massive ridge of the Pequest Fill, with over 6,600,000 cubic yards of spoil.
SPENDING MILLIONS TO SAVE MINUTES
ii
The plant turned to work on this cut- off represented a fortune in itself. One contractor had sufficient engines and cars to run a small railway', and he valued them at £40,000. Every possible device which would hasten construction, and save time and labour, was adopted. The ridges were
instance the builders drove their way for half a mile through granite, wherein the per- suasive efforts of dynamite were required to dislodge 1,000,000 cubic yards of rock. Some of the blasts were strikingly large. In a single detonation 40,000 Ib. of dyna- mite shivered a complete mountain nose.
CUTTING OUT THE SOLDIER SUMMIT HUMP ON THE DENVER AND RIO GRANDE RAILWAY. By this work a rise of 105, instead of 211 feet, per mile is secured.
not built up in the ordinary dumping way. A ropeway was stretched across the ravine, and from this was suspended a track laid on sleepers. The engine backed the loaded trucks on to this swinging track to be emptied. At other points towering timber trestles were erected. Rails were laid on top, over which the ballast cars rumbled and dumped their loads until every sign of the timber had disappeared beneath the big earthen bank.
The cuttings were as stupendous as the embankments. There is one as deep as the Pequest Fill is high, the trains hurtling along a huge trench 100 feet deep. In one
Smaller blasts, ranging up to 1,000 Ib., were almost of hourly occurrence. In fact, the demands for this rending and splitting agent were so steady and large that a factory was set up near Hopatcong for its manufacture upon the spot, supplies being delivered as required by the wagon load. By the time the track was opened for service over 5,000,000 Ib. of dynamite had been used.
It was cutting and embankment, with stretches of bridging, for every yard of the way. Over 13,000,000 cubic yards of earth and rock were dislodged from the cuttings to build up the embankments, which
• • . .
THE "FAST DENVER LIMITED" CLIMBING SOLDIER
The train had to rise one foot in 25 feet, and to maintain the scheduled speed four header and one pusher
by six miles, has reduced the grade to 1 in 50.
SUMMIT, WASATCH MOUNTAINS, UTAH, U.S.A.
engines were required. A new double-track detour has been made which, although increasing the distance
The 15 miles of nsw line cost £300,000.
RAILWAY WONDERS OF THE WORLD
absorbed some 15,000,000 cubic yards of spoil, the balance of the material being hauled from ballast pits which were opened at convenient points. Then sixty-five bridges were built over rivers and roads, ranging from a single arch of 33 feet span
The expenditure of £2,000,000 for a mere 28| miles conveys some idea of the extremities to which the older American railways are forced to go in order to retain their traffic. In this instance the Lacka- wanna has more than recouped its losses,
A 16j TON BLAST ON THE LACKAWANNA CUT-OFF. 5,000,000 Ib. of dynamite were used in this reconstruction work.
to a structure 1,450 feet from end to end over the Delaware River. This latter is the largest structure on the cut-off, hand- somely wrought in concrete, comprising five spans each measuring 150 feet, two of 120 feet, and two small arches over the railway tracks, each of 33 feet, with the metals laid 65 feet above the ordinary level of the river. Paulins Kill Bridge is the second largest. It is 1,100 feet long, built up of five 120-feet spans and two 100-feet spans, with the rails 115 feet above the level. The bridges consumed 225,000 cubic yards of concrete.
and is, in fact, placed at an advantage as compared with its rivals.
The Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul Railway embarked upon a striking piece of grade revision across the Des Moines River Valley near Madrid. Seven miles of existing line were scrapped in favour of a new line five miles in length, whereby 791 degrees of curvature were eliminated and the gradient lowered by 96 feet. The new track has been driven as straight as en- gineering ingenuity can contrive. Where the line crosses a deep chasm an artificial mountain was created so as to preserve
The hillside (granite) before the blast.
After the blast : 20,000 tons of disintegrated granite.
THE EFFECTS OF 16| TONS OF DYNAMITE USED IN THE WORK ON THE
LACKAWANNA CUT-OFF.
i6
RAILWAY WONDERS OF THE WORLD
the grade for a double track, while the river itself is spanned by a dizzy bridge of steel, the feature of which is that the permanent way is ballasted, instead of the rails being laid on longitudinal timbers. In this re- alignment the stations were moved two and three miles across country from the old to the new road.
When the railway invaded Australia the engineers were confronted by some abnor- mal differences in level within short dis- tances, owing to the abrupt configuration of the mountain flanks. This was especi- ally the case in New South Wales and Western Australia, where the Blue Moun- tains and the Darling Range respectively
railway locomotive. It took Mr. John Whitton a long time and considerable detailed correspondence, as wrell as ex- planations and diagrams, to convince his superiors that a railway engine really was superior to the horse in haulage work !
The trouble arose over the question oi carrying the railway onwards from Penritl: over the Blue Mountains to Bathurst. A sheer drop of 470 feet had to be negotiated The engineer-in-chief wanted a tunnel, 01 series of tunnels, to preserve the grade : but burrowing was expensive, and it was ruled out of court. The engineer stud to his ideas, however, and so pesterec officialdom that he got his way up to £
BUILDING UP THE PEQUEST FILL ON THE LACKAWANNA CUT-OFF. This enormous embankment absorbed over 6,600,000 cubic yards of material.
had to be overcome. But the natural diffi- culties were not the most serious : official ignorance was a far heavier millstone around the necks of the railway plotters, and some very quaint ideas were enter- tained by the powers that were concern- ing the operation and possibilities of the
point, but was given a limit of £20,000 pei mile.
Such a stipulation prevented tunnelling as originally planned, so the engineei devised an ingenious way out of the diffi- culty. He brought the railway to the base of the drop, and then started out tc
SPENDING MILLIONS TO SAVE MINUTES
climb up one leg of the V to the high- lands above. The line could not be taken up in a single run, as the gradient would have been too heavy — those were days before the rack came into vogue — so he sawed his way up the slope. The line
The " Zigzag," as this striking example of engineering skill was called, became one of the sights of the country, but in course of time it played havoc with econo- mical operation. Train weights became limited as well as speeds, and this
THE ZIGZAG THROUGH THE BLUE MOUNTAINS, NEW SOUTH WALES.
The elimination of this extraordinary piece of railway engineering cost about £350,000 for a distance of seven miles.
crawled upwards along a winding incline at 1 in 42 from one end of the ravine to the other. Here there was a dead end, but another gallery was hewn out of the cliff on a similar incline, only in the reverse direction to another dead end, from which a third ascending grade carried the line to the top. It was cxasperatingly slow and perilous work, cutting the three ascending shelves in the mountain-side, following its windings, and erecting massive masonry via- ducts over the deep rifts. In ascending the mountain-side the engine hauled the train along the bottom gallery to the dead end ; then it pushed it up the succeeding step to the second dead end, where the engine, being once more to the front, hauled its load to the top, and thence on to Bathurst.
threatened a congestion of traffic. Ac- cordingly, the issue of eliminating the Zigzag arose. It was certain to be a costly proceeding. This fact was realised fully, but overhaul in railway work is always costly.
A new scheme was prepared, and, like the original project, it was debated, re- vised, restored, pigeon-holed, and revived in turn. At last, in response to pressure, it was attacked boldly, and a new location was made so as to avoid the Zigzag altogether. It was a wide, circuitous deviation, entailing deep cuttings and heavy tunnelling through projecting spurs and humps protruding from the main range. The tunnels, ten in number, for the most part are short ; but some of the
i8
RAILWAY WONDERS OF THE WORLD
cuttings arc of immense depth, one having walls of earth sloping upwards for 132 feet. Grades were eased, and the curves opened, the banks rising 1 in 90 instead of 1 in 42, while the curves are of 924 feet instead of 528 feet radius. By the time the task was consummated about £350,000 had been expended to bring this short length of seven miles into conformity with modern railway ideas.
This re-modelling process is being pushed
forward more feverishly than ever in all parts of the world. Every country is having to pay a heavy penalty for the mistakes of the pioneers. Every minute which can be saved is vital to the opera- tion of a railway in these days of bitter competition. " Spending millions to save minutes " may have become a trite ex- pression, but it is the governing watch- word of every railway between the two Poles.
CUTTING OUT THE ZIGZAG. NEW SOUTH WALES. A heavy cutting : showing clearing through the bush for right-of-way
THE FADES VIADUCT ACROSS THE SIOULE RIVER, PUY-DE-DOME. FRANCE.
Building the World's Loftiest Bridge
THE CENTRAL SPAN OF THE FADES VIADUCT IS 20 FEET HIGHER THAN THE TOPMOST POINT OF THE FORTH BRIDGE
HILE it is always somewhat hazardous to award the palm of distinction to any particular undertaking in the field of engineering, it is probable that pride of place in bridge build- ing, so far as height combined with length is concerned, is occupied by the Fades Viaduct, which spans the wide, deep, verdant gorge through which flows the Sioule River, below St. Eloy, in the province of Puy-de-D6me, France. It is
undoubtedly a meritorious work, rivalling even the masterpiece of Monsieur G. Eiffel at Garabit, not far distant. Although not quite so long as the last-named structure, the level of the railway metals is over 30 feet higher. If the Fades Viaduct were planted across the Firth of Forth, the towers of Sir Benjamin Baker's huge cantilever structure might be placed comfortably beneath its central span, and yet leave 20 feet head room.
20
RAILWAY WONDERS OF THE WORLD
The urgency of this undertaking had A wide variety of competitive designs been maintained for many years in for a bridge were prepared and submitted order to complete the Tullc-Clermont to the authorities. After careful investiga- and Montlu9on-Gannat railway. But tion the proposal of M. Draux, the Govern- the Sioule River offered an insurmount- ment engineer, found favour in Ministerial able obstacle. The ravine is a huge eyes. The successful engineer when sub- mitting his ideas was careful to emphasise that the difficulties of erection would be abnormal, and that new, untried methods would have to be called into service, the success of which, from lack of ex- perience under similar con- ditions, was uncertain. The issue became complicated, because during the exam- ination of the various designs other unexpected problems came to light, ' so that the whole ques- tion had to be threshed out anew.
Considerable delay thus arose. Repeated adjura- tions were made to com- mence the work, but the authorities refused to be hurried, in view of the magnitude of the enter- prise. There must be no possibility of failure ; no cessation of work when once started, through the " unexpected " suddenly deep V in the rugged centre of France, revealing itself; and, above all, absolute the banks sloping down at an angle of safety must be assured. Every contingency some 45 degrees to the river at the that might crop up was considered and bottom, while the distance across the gap due provision made therefor, at the top exceeds \ mile. Investiga- When official approval was extended at tions proved that the only means of last, the designs provided for a bridge with negotiating this interruption was by a total length of 1,526 feet divided into connecting the upper points of the four spans. The outstanding feature was V, it being impossible to carry the the main span above the waterway and line down the valley slopes to cross at its massive masonry piers, a lower level. The first move was the preparation of
COMMENCING THE STEELWORK ON ONE OF THE SHORE SPANS: SHOWING THE WIRE-NETTING ENCLOSED TRAVELLER.
BUILDING THE WORLD'S LOFTIEST BRIDGE
21
the masonry work, and troubles were
experienced almost at the beginning.
On the St. Eloy side of the
A False Vallcv the contractor carried his Start.
excavations down to a depth
of 23 feet to secure foundations for the abutment, . but failed to discover any- thing better than badly cracked rock. Instead of driving more deeply in the hope of finding firmer ground, he started to lay his foundations upon this broken surface, endeavouring to secure homogeneity by introducing a system of interlocked steel bars. The masonry had been carried up to a height of 98 feet when labour was stopped suddenly. The whole mass was sliding downwards into the valley ! This was quite an unexpected development. The engineers hurriedly made a number of borings to discover the cause of this mishap, and found that the subsoil was absolutely unsafe. Without further ado the whole of the masonry was demolished and its use abandoned in favour of a short steel span.
At this juncture the masonry contrac- tor died, and the whole undertaking was suddenly thrust upon the famous * Societe Fra^aise de Constructions Mecaniques — formerly the Call Company — of Denain, who had been awarded the contract for the steelwork only. Upon arrival at the site the first question was the establishment of temporary communication between the opposite sides of the valley, to facilitate the movement of the constructional material and men. A small incline railway was laid down each slope and connected at the bottom by means of a wooden bridge across the river. In this way it was possible to pass from the brink of one bank to that of the other in a few seconds, thereby avoid- ing the tedious toil along the highway which zigzags down the valley sides. An electric generating station was established with the dynamos driven by motors fed with producer gas, since electric energy was
used throughout for driving sand-mills, mortar-mixers, lifting gear, and a hundred and one other operations.
The most important and difficult part of the undertaking was in connection with the main span, 472J feet in length, which lies immediately A sPan
above the River Sioule. When
472J feet at
a Height of
one stands on the rails in the 434 feet.
centre of this span, the water flows 434 ft. 8| in. below one's feet. This central mass of steel is supported at each end upon a huge masonry pier. These piers are of rectangular shape, with the longest sides parallel with the river. They rise in scarcely perceptible curves to the top, which gives them a graceful, sub- stantial appearance.
The erection of the piers proved some- what costly owing to their dimensions. Each rests upon a solid massive plinth carried deeply down to the solid rock. At the base they measure 72 feet in length by 38 feet wide, and rise to a height of 302 ft. 4 in. above the foundations, taper- ing gradually to 36 feet by 18 feet at the top, where they are finished tastefully with a decorative stone coping, projecting 3 feet from the face of the towers.
Construction was carried out from the inside, thereby dispensing with elaborate external scaffolding. A shaft
extends from top to ground How the i i j ii • j.- i Piers were
level, and this vertical passage constructed.
was used by workmen and also for the conveyance of the building material. The latter upon reaching the building level was handled by a small derrick which lowered it where it was required. Granite was used exclusively, although it had to be brought from a quarry some 10 miles away, while it was subjected to elaborate tests to ensure the stipulated quality. Small cubes of the stone, measuring 2 inches, representing the material for the inner lining, were sub- mitted to crushing, and were found to resist a pressure of 7,865 pounds per square inch, while the granite selected for facing and
22
RAILWAY WONDERS OF THE WORLD
the decorative coping resisted a pressure of 8,8-10 pounds per square inch.
Owing to the diminishing sectional area of the towers as they rose upward, the space upon which the masons toiled grew more cramped
Piers Cost £52,000.
every day. When the last course of stones was set in position the labourers were almost on a level with the tableland on either hand. Then a heavy cradle was rigged up to encircle each pier, and swung from the corners of the tower tops. This was lowered, with a small gang on board, who pointed and applied other finishing touches to the stone- work facing, being hauled up and down from their working level on the swinging platform, which was caged in to protect the men from falling. By the time these two lofty piers were completed £52,000 had been expended, while the total cost of all the earthwork and masonry for the struc- ture was £98,000.
As the towers approached completion preparations for setting the steelwork were advanced. The shore span of 380 feet springing from the Pauniat side was taken in hand first, in 1904. When it was decided to erect the lofty masonry piers, serious objections were raised in certain quarters that high winds would set up heavy oscillation — that they would sway to and fro in the same manner as tall factory chimneys and other similar structures respond to the pressure of the winds. The engineers, however, who had studied the wind velocities minutely, replied that they had so designed their work as to balance any such stresses that could be brought to bear upon it, and with a good margin to spare. Moreover, they maintained, once the steelwork was in position, that the whole fabric would be braced together and be rendered as rigid and solid as a rock.
The first half of the shore section was built upon a heavy timber falsework.
«,. High Winds.
When the steel reached the outer edge of this timbering it was continued over the intermediate gap of 190
feet to the top of the first The ,steeU
„ work,
mam pier. To counterbalance
the increasing weight of this overhanging section a huge counterweight of steel rails was placed upon the part of the span already completed at the shore end. The steelwork, comprising a rectangular struc- ture measuring 22| feet wide by 40 feet in height, built up of two main side-lattice- work trusses, was erected upon lines evolved by M. Cartier, one of the engineers to the Cail Company. There was a large cage, which slipped over the end of the truss. This was fitted with rollers, which ran along the top girders, so that the cage could be pushed forward as the steelwork crept outwards. In order to extend complete protection to the workmen this traveller was enclosed in network to the top of the sides, while the floor was solid. Conse- quently, if a workman missed his footing he was saved from certain death. Similarly the loss of tools was obviated, as they could be recovered easily.
On the top side of this cage a small over- head travelling electric-driven crane was mounted. As it was able to move over the full length JJj^f1 ectric and width of the metallic work, this appliance commanded the whole working area, so that the heavy pieces of steel were lowered into position easily, while the cumbrous tools by which the sections were riveted up were similarly moved from point to point as desired. After the Pauniat shore span was completed to the first pier, the timber falsework was taken down, transferred by the incline railways to the St. Eloy bank, where the shore span, of identical length on that side, was set in position in a similar manner.
The completion of these respective shore spans left the long gap, 472| feet in width, over the river to be bridged. This was the most difficult and hazardous part of the
THE FIRST COMPLETED SPAN OF THE FADES VIADUCT. The view shows the engineers' inclined railway down the valley side.
RAILWAY WONDERS OF THE WORLD
THE TIMBER FALSEWORK FOR ERECTING ONE-HALF OF A SHORE SPAN.
whole undertaking. No timber falsework was possible here. Instead, the section had to be built 011 the overhang . method. An erection cage, which with its overhead equipment weighed about 80 tons, advanced boldly into mid-air from each tower to meet immediately above the centre of the Sioule River. Care was observed to main- tain the same rate of advance from each side, so that the two cages might reach the centre simultaneously. Erection was ac- complished fairly quickly, the steelwork creeping forward through the air at the rate of 4j feet per day from each arm, mak- ing a total advance of 8| feet per day. When the centre of the gap was almost reached a small footbridge was thrown from arm to arm, affording communication be- tween the advancing trusses, and, when at last the two cages met, they were bolted together, and preparations made to join the two sections of the span together.
The connection of two such immense steel limbs in mid-air is a delicate operation de- manding extreme care ; the two extremities had to be brought dead in line, both hori- zontally-and vertically. The weight of the overhanging sections had caused the two extremities to sag about 13 inches. This defect had first to be corrected, and any possible lateral -deviation provided for. This was accomplished by the aid of hydraulic jacks, which were set beneath the span on the main piers, and also beneath the ends of the steelwork on the bank abutments. As the weight of steel to be moved represented about 1,200 tons, foi jacks, each capable of lifting 300 tons, were placed on the piers in such a manner that the entire arms of steel could be moved sideways as well as up and down. By lifting the whole mass of steel on the main piers and lowering the jacks on the abutments, the end of each limb of steel was canted
BUILDING THE WORLD'S LOFTIEST BRIDGE 25
upwards until the deflected extremities were dead in line.
In such work as this the temperature of the atmosphere plays a very vital part in the final operation. The expansion and contraction of such a long mass of steel- work under the fluctuations in the heat of the sun's rays is appreciable. As the Fades Viaduct lies across the gorge in a north by south direction the sun plays only on one side of the structure at a time, so that expansion is unequal. This fact demanded skilful treatment. The closing operation took place on May 17th, 1909. The east side was closed when the sun was shining brightly. When the girders forming the chord were lowered into position it was found that the 1-inch rivet holes therein came flush with the relative holes in the fixed part of the bridge. Accordingly bolts
were slipped in and the breach on that side closed speedily. On the west side, as it was in the shade at the time, the holes in the closing girder and the ends of the arms were out by T"F inch. Consequently a tem- porary closure was made on this side by driving home TVinch bolts. At a later hour, when, under the influence of the sun's rays the west side of the bridge ex- panded, the temporary bolts were with- drawn, as the holes came accurately together to permit the 1-inch rivets to be driven home. The jacks on the main piers after- wards were lowered, so that the steelwork came to rest in its normal position upon the expansion rollers.
Owing to the elaborate precautions adopted, only one life was lost over this great work, and this occurred during paint- ing operations. The bridge carries a single
CRAWLING FOOT BY FOOT TOWARDS THE FIRST PIER.
Showing timber falsework for half the distance, and counterweight at shore end to counterbalance
weight of overhanging section.
26
RAILWAY WONDERS OF THE WORLD
railway track of standard gauge on the top deck. Special arrangements have been introduced to prevent a train, in the event of derailment, plunging over the side into the depths of the valley. The bridge has been designed so as to be able to withstand any load that might be brought to bear upon it even under the most disadvantageous circumstances. On the upper deck there is a narrow footway, level with the metals, to facilitate the inspection of the permanent way, while a footbridge, 3 feet wide, is fitted to the bottom girders for the pur-
poses of inspecting, repairing, and painting the bridge.
The Fades Viaduct is one of the most impressive works of its kind in the world, and commands attention on account of its great height. There can be no question that it serves as an imposing record of the skill of the French bridge builders. It was a highly responsible undertaking, and some eight years were occupied in its fulfilment. After being tested it was taken over by the Paris-Orleans Railway Company in September, 1909.
GENERAL VIEW OF THE SIOULE RIVER VALLEY AND THE VIADUCT WORKS SHOWING THE TWO CHIMNEY-LIKE PIERS.
THE " GARRATT " PATENT LOCOMOTIVE. USED ON THE TASMANIAN GOVERNMENT RAILWAYS- NORTH-EAST DUNDAS SECTION.
A New and Novel Articulated
Locomotive
AN INGENIOUSLY CONSTRUCTED ENGINE WHICH MAY MARK A NEW ERA IN
LOCOMOTIVE DESIGN
URING the past few years the increasing demands for greater power to haul heavier and longer trains has been respon- sible for the display of striking ingenuity in connection with locomotive design. Recently the attention of engineers and others concerned with the economical oper- ation of the great railways of the world has been attracted to quite a new and novel type of steam railway engine, which has been evolved by a British inventor, Mr. H. W. Garratt, M.I.Mech.E., and the question has been discussed as to whether it does not indicate a new era in locomo-
tive design. Although it belongs essenti- ally to the articulated class, it has one great advantage over its prototypes — it it more flexible — and appears to meet very completely all the varying and severe re- quirements of the average railway, from which stretches of heavy grades and sharp curves generally are inseparable.
It is conceded generally that inventors have very little scope for further develop- ment within the recognised limits of loco- motive construction, unless resort is made to the introduction of complications which are apt to counteract any benefits that may arise from the incorporation of the new feature. The boiler and the driving
28
RAILWAY WONDERS OF THE WORLD
wheels are two vital factors, and there is a limit to their respective diameters. The boiler has to be disposed above the wheels, and the dimensions of the latter influence the former to a very appreciable degree, because the over-all height of the engine is limited by tunnels and bridges. If the size of the wheels is augmented, their axles must be brought to a higher eleva- tion above the track, and accordingly
have free and easy movement, are rendered stiff and unnatural, so that they cannot accommodate themselves readily to the curvature of the track ; flexibility, which is so keenly demanded, is imperilled gravely, if not destroyed.
In these circumstances the problem which Mr. Garratt sought to solve was necessarily of a complex and searching character. In order to achieve any measure
EIGHT-CYLINDERED GARRATT
the diameter of the boiler must be affected.
The questions of weight distribution and a large grate area of proper proportions also influence the situation very materially. Locomotive engineers have surmounted these various handicaps by lengthening the boiler and increasing the number of driving wheels, but this has given birth to another objection. It is" useless to extend the length of the boiler without enlarging the grate area of the fire-box to secure the maximum steaming capacity and complete economical combustion of fuel. Lengthening the boiler in turn pre- cipitates the possibility of eliminating all the advantages incidental to the articu- lated system. The bogies, which should
of commercial success it was necessary to depart from conventional lines. In this quest, however, he has succeeded, and his efforts culminated in the production of a design which is distinctly novel, ingenious, effective and economical in working. When he had completed his ideas he submitted them to one of the foremost British loco- motive building organisations, Messrs. Beyer, Peacock and Company, Limited, of Gorton Foundry, Manchester. They readily appre- ciated the outstanding features of the new system, acquired the patents, and under- took to exploit the invention. Several months were expended upon the perfection of the details of the designer's handiwork. The first opportunity to ascertain the possi- bilities of the system came when the
A NEW AND NOVEL ARTICULATED LOCOMOTIVE 29
chief engineer of the Tasnianian Govern- ment railways suggested that small engines of this class should be given a practical test upon the State system of the island.
This was about as severe a test as could be conceived for a new idea. The loco- motives were required for working upon the North East Dundas section of the State system, where the gauge is 2 feet,
as a boiler and two complete motor bogies, one placed at each end, as the latter carry the cylinders, pistons, and driving gear. The boiler, including fire-box and cab, mounted upon its frame is carried between the two bogie trucks, so that the wheels are not brought beneath the boiler and fire-box. The advantage is obvious. As there are no restrictions arising from the presence of wheel axles,
PASSENGER LOCOMOTIVE
with grades running up to 1 in 25, and with curves of 99 feet radius. Rigid stipulations were laid down to which the engine had to conform, so that it cannot be said that the inventor was g'ven the opportunity to demonstrate his ideas under the (to him) most favourable conditions. Two loco- motives were built and shipped to Tasmania in 1909, where they have been running continuously ever since.
The salient feature wherein the Garratt locomotive differs from its contemporaries is that the boiler is a distinct unit, and is not mounted above the driving wheels in the usual way. Fundamentally it com- prises three sections : the boiler with its fire- box, and two end bogies, each of which is a driving unit, so that it may be described
the diameter of the boiler may be increased very appreciably, while there is no fear of cramping the fire-grate. In fact, the whole may be placed so low as to leave only the minimum clearance between the rails and the bottom of the fire-box. This feature exercises its advantages in several ways. In the first place the centre of gravity is kept low, ensuring steadiness and safety in running "at the highest speeds ; the driver has a clearer view of the road ahead and behind, owing to the large-sized cab windows that can be fitted ; while, if necessary, the boiler diameter can be en- larged to about 20 per cent, more than is possible under present conditions, even if a Garratt type comparable with the huge Mallet engines is evolved.
RAILWAY WONDERS OF THE WORLD
The two end bogies, in addition to carry- ing the driving mechanism, are also utilised, for the bunkering of the End Units coai ancj Water, so that a
Used for Coal • *t i t
and Water tender in the usual sense of
the word is rendered un- necessary. The weight thus imposed not only increases the adhesion of the wheels, but when the locomotive is running at high speed, they effectively assist to prevent oscillation of the bogies, so that the wear and tear upon the flanges of the wheels, and. also the rails, is reduced to a minimum. The capacity of the tanks may be varied according to requirements, this factor being governed entirely by the number of wheels to the bogie and the axle-loads permitted.
In the case of simple expansion working, the steam from the boiler is taken from the dome by means of two regulators with piping, one of which extends to the smoke- box end of the central unit, and thence to the front bogie through a flexible joint ; the other runs to the fire-box end, and in a similar manner to the rear bogie, a Y pipe in each instance delivering the steam to the cylinders on either side.
By dividing the locomotive into three
parts in this manner the full effects of
articulation are obtained.
oft™ Type- °Wing tO the "^ SCCti°n' that of the boiler and its
frame, being kept as short as possible, and the two bogies having free play, the sharpest curves and inequalities in the track may be negotiated with extreme ease, and the flexibility is such that the whole engine conforms with natural free- dom to the curve. In rounding a curve, the rigid central section forms a true chord of the arc, while the sharper the curve the more the centre of gravity is brought inwards, so that exceptional stability is secured. The extreme flexibility of this type of engine is demonstrated most con- vincingly, possibly, on sharp reverse curves, which may be rounded at high speed with far greater safety than is possible witli the
ordinary locomotive, there being an entire absence of stiffness or grinding of the flanges against the rails. There is none of that climbing tendency of .the engine which often is experienced under such con- ditions, and which has been responsible for many derailments. Another point which cannot fail to be observed is that there is no overhang of the boiler frame when round- ing a curve, as the articulating centres are fixed at the extreme ends of this frame. This contrasts very vividly with the over- hang of the boiler and frame upon the general type of semi-rigid articulated loco- motive, which is now so much in vogue.
It might be thought that difficulty would arise in distributing the loads uniformly over the axles, especially as the weight of the fuel and The Question
water is fluctuating con- °.f Distribu-
tion of stantly ; but with efficient Weight.
designing this is not so. The combined weight of the fuel and water represent such a small proportion of the total weight of the bogies that even if the whole of these commodities were consumed — in actual running it is very improbable that their weight would fall below 20 per cent, of the full load — there is still ample weight upon the wheels ; the variation in the loads upon the axles certainly would not be more than in the ordinary type of tank engine which is in daily use.
In the first engines of this type, built for Tasmania, there is a small bogie at either end, fitted with two
coupled axles ; compounding Tasmanian
Experiments.
was stipulated, although it
is not essential to the Garratt system, and its incorporation involved some- what heavy and unavoidable compli- cations. The high-pressure cylinders are mounted on the trailing, and the low- pressure cylinders upon the leading, bogie. In this instance the steam is led from the dome to the rear truck, and distri- buted by a Y pipe to the cylinders on either side. The exhaust steam is received
Front Engine Unit.
Boiler and Frame.
Rear Engine Unit. UNITS OF THE EIGHT-CYLINDERED GARRATT LOCOMOTIVE.
RAILWAY WONDERS OF THE WORLD
LOOKING DOWN ON AN ENGINE UNIT OF A GARRATT LOCOMOTIVE.
through a second Y pipe and carried to a flexible coupling or ball-joint, then under the frame of the boiler to the front bogie, where it is distributed by a similarly bi- furcated pipe to the low-pressure cylinders. The exhaust from the latter is taken back by another Y pipe and ball-joint coupling to the chimney, to be discharged into the air. For simple expansion working the cab is fitted with devices to intercept the return of the exhaust steam from the high- pressure cylinders, while live steam is admitted direct into the cylinders of the leading bogie. The high-pressure cylinders have a diameter of 11 inches, while the low-pressure cylinders have a diameter of 17 inches, with a common stroke of 16 inches. The boiler barrel is 7 feet in length by 3 ft. 11 £ in. diameter outside, and has 170 tubes of If inches external diameter. The over-all length of the locomotive is 33 ft. 10J in. by 7 feet wide, and the total weight in working order is 33 tons 10f cwt.
When the Tasmanian engines appeared they aroused considerable interest, but were regarded in many railway quarters as a novelty, comparable with the Fon- taine and other unusual designs which have appeared from time to time. But the experience gained on the Tasmanian railways tends to indicate that the engines are eminently adapted to peculiar condi- tions. While inquiries concerning the adap- tability of the idea to other countries com- menced to roll in, the system received its complete vindication when the Tasmanian Government, which first had submitted the idea to practical trial, ordered larger and more powerful types for their main lines. Here again a variety of difficult and rigid requirements had to be fulfilled, for which Mr. W. R. Deeble, the chief mechanical engineer to the Tasmanian Government, concluded that the Garratt system offered the only solution.
In Tasmania the railway situation has developed, as it has in other countries.
A NEW AND NOVEL ARTICULATED LOCOMOTIVE 33
Increased weights had to be handled by the engines. The adoption of corridor coaches in the express passenger service doubled the weight of the train to be handled by the existing locomotives, and, in combination with high speed, the ordi- nary type of engine was ruled out of court upon the 3 feet G inch gauge with grades
6 feet, and capable of attaining speeds up to 50 miles per hour on the straight, and 30 miles per hour round reverse curves of 330 feet radius. This is probably the most powerful articulated locomotive yet built for passenger service upon a 3| feet gauge. So far as the goods locomotives are concerned, the same governing factors,
A GARRATT LOCOMOTIVE FOR THE DARJEELING-HIMALAYAN RAILWAY. ON A REVERSE
CURVE OF 60 FEET RADIUS.
of 1 in 40 and curves of 330 feet radius. The axle-loads and length of the fixed wheel base were restricted by the physical cha- racteristics of the road, while speed imposed special conditions concerning the size and distribution of the wheels, as well as the balancing of the reciprocating forces, so as to prevent side .movement.
The situation has been met completely by a Garratt simple locomotive, having two groups of four-coupled wheels, with four-cylinder balanced engines, each having an inner pair of carrying-wheels and an outer four-wheeled bogie. Virtually it is an Atlantic type of engine adapted to the Garratt system, with coupled wheels of 5 feet diameter. The weight upon the driving axles varies between 11 1 to 12 tons per axle, with a rigid wheel base of 5
except high speed and axle-load, which was limited to 9| tons, had to be taken into con- sideration. For this work a Garratt simple goods locomotive of the 2-6-2, 2-6-2 class was adopted, there being two groups of six coupled wheels, with two cylinder engines, each having an inner pair of carrying wheels provided with side play, and an outer two-wheeled radial bogie, the coupled wheels being 3 feet 6 inches in diameter, with a rigid wheel base of 8 feet. This arrangement of the wheels affords the maximum-powered engine on the specified axle-load.
The absence of side tanks and of wheels below the boiler — the characteristic features of the Garratt locomotive — has facilitated the provision of a large boiler of simple and well-proportioned design, with a wide and
34
RAILWAY WONDERS OF THE WORLD
The Tractive Effort.
deep fire-box of the Belpaire pattern. The one design of boiler in this instance is common to both passenger and goods engines, and provision is made for using oil fuel if desired.
In the Garratt locomotive the power or tractive effort is governed solely by the permissible load per axle, and the number of coupled axles, since in this type the boiler can be made so large as to be capable of supplying sufficient steam for cylinders of such proportions as may be required to make full use of the adhesive weight. For instance, for standard gauge working, a Garratt engine, with two six-wheel coupled bogies — 0-6-0, 0-6-0 type — with a load dis- tribution of 18 tons per axle, has a tractive effort of 50,000 Ib. Such an engine on the level could haul 3,000 tons, or 850 tons up a grade of 1 in 50, at a speed of 10 miles per hour. The total weight of the locomotive — no tender — would be about 108 tons, and the total length about 62 feet. Similarly, another engine, with two eight-wheel coupled bogies — 0-8-0, 0-8-0 type — having a load of 20 tons per axle, has a tractive effort of 72,000 Ib. This would be sufficient to pull 4,500 tons on the level, or 1,200 tons up a bank of 1 in 50, at 10 miles per hour. In this case, while the engine would weigh 160 tons complete, and have an over-all length of about 67 feet, the longest rigid portion would only be some 30 feet.
Up to the present engines of this design have not been adopted for working upon standard gauge railways, but owing to the success of the engine upon narrower gauges, combined with its great possi- bilities, the day doubtless is approaching when it will be taken up for such work. It may not be seen for some time in this country, since the problem of the railway locomotive is not so acute as in the United States, Canada, and India, where heavy banks, sharp curves, and mammoth train loads are more common.
Railway operators cannot fail to appre- ciate other advantages which the system offers, and which tend to- wards highly economical f^vstfrn. ^ working. The design and arrangement conduce to easy riding, so that the track is given a longer lease of life, while the engine itself is spared those severe racking strains and stresses inseparable from the conventional articulated locomo- tive. It forms a perfect double-ender, and can be driven in either direction. This facility affects another question. Turning for every trip is dispensed with, so that turntables are not required. This in itself represents a distinct advantage, seeing that the monster locomotives used for handling heavy loads demand turntables ranging up to 90 and 100 feet in length, with massive foundations. If the develop- ment of the Mallet engine offers any criterion of the limits to which loco- motive dimensions and weight may be carried, it is not impossible to assume that the Garratt engine will undergo development to the same degree, giving greater power with smaller dimensions. This possibility has been anticipated, since, if the boiler is brought up to the height of the largest Mallets, the outlook from the cab will be reduced. This disability will be met by placing another cab forward of the smoke-stack, to be used for forward running, the existing cab being employed for driving in the reverse direction.
The ease with which overhaul and clean- ing operations can be carried out must not be overlooked. Owing to the fire-box being free from the presence of wheels and tanks in close proximity, the wash-out plugs, etc., are quite accessible, as is also the ashpan for the rapid clearing out of ashes. By lifting the boiler unit and making a few disconnections, the two bogies can be drawn quite clear, the three units being thus easily accessible for over- hauling.
OF (HE UNIVERSITY OP ILUNCb
THE WETTERHORN AERIAL RAILWAY
Aerial Mountain Railways
THE METHOD OF ALPINE VIEWING WHICH IS SAFE, LUXURIOUS, RAPID,
AND POPULAR
HILE the cog-wheel railway for the ascent of steep mountains has been brought to a high standard of development, and has been adopted widely during the past forty years, it is some- what expensive, both as regards
aerial railways for the transport of mer- chandise, was requested to instal a similar line between the mill and the residential centre. It was completed at a cost of some £5,000, and met the situation very completely.
The line is carried upon lattice steel
first cost and maintenance. The result is that many of the grandest and steepest mountains still are able to defy railway conquest.
During the past few years, however, a new system of railway mountaineering has been perfected, and has been brought into practical oper- ation both among the Alps and the American Rockies. This is the aerial railway, wherein the car is slung from a wheeled bogie carriage running along a steel cable stretched through the air.
This idea was introduced by a British firm many years ago. The proprietors of a sugar-mill in Hong Kong acquired a site upon the elevated plateau overlooking the coast for the housing of their European staff, the level of the works being somewhat unhealthy. In order to expedite and facili- tate movement between the two points, the London firm of Bullivant, which had pre- viously completed several
A CAR ON THE WETTERHORN AERIAL RAILWAY. The two cables forming the track are mounted one above
the other.
35
RAILWAY WONDERS OF THE WORLD
THE UPPER STATION ON THE WETTERHORN AERIAL RAILWAY.
Over 6,000 feet above sea level.
towers, the track being a single steel rope, along which runs a two-wheeled truck, from which is suspended the travelling carriage, resembling a light double deck seat with the passengers sitting back to back. An end- less rope attached to the car hauls it up and down at a maximum speed of 8 miles per hour.
Since this pioneer line was built aerial railway travelling has made giant strides. The Hong Kong undertaking is a private concern, so when it came to catering for the public upon similar lines, many ques- tions had to be taken into consideration which did not affect the first-named enter- prise. The first public railway of this character, designed essentially for public service, was that up the Wetterhorn, in the Bernese Oberland. The idea was elabor- ated by Herr Feldmann, who supervised
the construction of the Barmen- Elberfeld suspension railway, described in another chapter.
This engineer evolved an en- tirely new system, so far as its details were concerned, wherein unassailable security was ensured. He adopted two ropes to form a track, one being placed above the other. There are two tracks, each carrying a car, and as the latter are connected together by the hoisting rope, one ascends while the other descends, thereby se- curing a certain measure of counterbalancing, as is adopted on the incline railway. By dis- posing the two ropes, forming a single track, one above the other, and by using a four-wheeled travelling truck having two wheels on each rope, increased stability of the suspended cars — especially in high winds — was obtained.
Although this ingenious en- gineer did not live to see his idea carried into practical appli- cation, yet his plans were prepared so completely that they were easy to fulfil. The contract was undertaken by Messrs. Von de Roll, of the Fonderie de Berne, who have made a speciality of mountain railway engineering in all its varied branches.
The lower station is situate at an eleva- tion of about 5,500 feet above sea level, while the upper station is 1,380 feet higher and 1,200 feet distant in a horizontal line. The gradient is thus somewhat steep. The track cables are each 1'93 inches in diameter, and are built up of 96 steel wires disposed in five layers around a central wire. The two cables forming a single track are spaced 2f feet apart, while 26 feet separates the two lines. Each cable weighs 7'4 Ib. per foot, and is able to withstand a stress of 154 tons, so that with the estimated
AERIAL MOUNTAIN RAILWAYS
37
maximum load per cable of 13'8 tons there is a very wide margin of safety. The cables are maintained at a constant tension by the aid of a counterweight of 18| tons in the lower station, and any weakening of either cable is compensated automatically. Should one cable break, the second is quite strong enough to support the car.
The travelling truck, as already men- tioned, is fitted with four wheels and a guide wheel, two running on the upper side of each supporting cable, while the framing ensures the wheels securing a constant grip upon their respective surfaces, so that derailment is impossible. Each truck is coupled to two hoisting cables, 1'14 inches diameter, built up of 90 steel wires woven together in six strands. These cables will withstand a pull of 43 tons before breaking, but in service the strain is only 2j tons. They are connected to the travelling truck through a cross arm which brings them
5'4 feet apart. The cars are attached to the respective ends of these hoisting cables, which are passed round two winding drums driven by a 45-horse-powcr electric motor in the upper station.
From the wheeled truck depends the triangular framing from which the car is suspended. The carriage is about 10 feet square and 8 feet in height, with seating capacity for eight passengers and the driver. If required, however, seventeen people can Jbe carried, there being standing space for nine persons. Each car in the empty condition weighs over 4 tons, so that when fully loaded the total weight is well over 5 tons.
The safety devices which are incorpor- ated to ensure the security of the passengers are of a very complete character. The travelling truck carries automatically oper- ating brakes. If a hoisting cable should snap the car is arrested immediately, the
INTERIOR OF THE DRIVING STATION, WETTERHORN AERIAL RAILWAY. Showing the two great winding drums driven by a 45-horse-power electric motor.
RAILWAY WONDERS OF THE WORLD
brake being so powerful that it is able to bring the vehicle to a standstill, when travelling at full speed, within less than one foot. This brake can also be applied by the driver from the car ; but in any event he has to climb to the railed-in roof of the car to reset it before the journey can be resumed.
The driving station also is supplied with
numerous devices to the same end. If the
electric current supply should
The Car faji) the car attain too high a
Cannot ,
Run Away. sPeec>> or the machinery reveal
some defect, a magnetic brake acts on the winding gear. The engineer is supplied with indicators which reveal the speed and position of the cars on the track throughout the journey. So a car can- not run away.
Failure of the electric current from the
public supply, however, does not bring the
railway to a complete stand-
Supplemen- stiH. In the lower station is a tary Electric , . . .
Supply. secondary battery, which is
kept fully charged, and this is able to run the vehicles through twenty-five journeys. Neither can the passengers be- come stranded on the track midway between the two stations. If the machinery breaks down completely the winding sheaves can be operated by manual effort to bring the cars in. As it is quite possible, although very remote, that a car may come to a standstill along the track owing to some defect developing in its mechanism, there is a small emergency car which can be let down the track to the stalled vehicle to take off the passengers ; this little vehicle can be operated either through a small electric motor or by hand.
The cars are suspended from their carry- ing truck in such a way that they maintain an even deck throughout the Car is journey, irrespective of the in-
Always Horizontal.
clination of the track. Thus on
the uppermost section of the line, where the gradient is exceedingly severe — it is almost vertical — the feeling of being
transported in a lift is conveyed, there being no impression of the steepness of the climb, except by taking stock of the surroundings.
After being submitted to the most exact- ing tests by the Swiss authorities, the Wetterhorn Aerial Railway was opened for public service in July, 1908. Since then it has been running continually without the slightest mishap.
Herr Josef Stamer, of Bozen, had con- templated a similar conquest of the Kohlerer mountain in the Austrian Tyrol. This peak was provided with a The primitive aerial ropeway carried on wooden supports, but under the tourist development of the country it demanded modernisation. Herr Stafflcr decided to adopt an aerial system as being cheaper, quicker, and more satisfactory, and forthwith discussed the question with Adolf Bleichert and Company, the well- known London and Leipzig firm, who have completed some of the most noteworthy aerial railways of the world. A scheme was evolved, and in this instance, as in Switzerland, the Austrian Government had to be satisfied very completely upon the adequacy of the public safeguards.
This aerial railway commences at Eisack, and soars up the mountain side for a dis- tance of 5,250 feet. The dis- tance is not covered in a Track
, ., f Supported
single span, as in the case of on xowers>
the Wetterhorn line. Twelve lattice steel towers are introduced at in- tervals to support the track. The latter comprises two steel ropes, each about 1|-J inches in diameter, and spaced about 19 J inches apart. There are two tracks, one for each car, the railway being run upon the counter- balancing system. At the upper station the ropes are anchored in the mountain side, while at the lower end they are connected to massive weights, placed in a pit, in order to maintain the tension.
There are two hoisting ropes attached to
CAR ON THE KOHLERER AERIAL RAILWAY. It maintains a horizontal position throughout the ascent of 5,250 feet.
RAILWAY WONDERS OF THE WORLD
the travelling truck, which is fitted with four wheels, two running on each rope. In this instance the two ropes are placed side
THE DRIVING GEAR OF THE KOHLERER AERIAL RAILWAY. The machinery is electrically operated.
by side, instead of one above the other, as in the Wetterhorn railway.
The towers supporting the track are of heavy construction, built on massive founda- tions. Their height varies from 23 to 97| feet, according to the configuration of the mountain flank. The ropes are carried upon the supporting brackets in such a
manner that no jar or oscillation is imparted to the car as its track wheels pass over. The travelling speed is about 10 feet per
second, and the complete journey occupies about thirteen minutes. The railway is electrically oper- ated, and the starting always is carried out from the upper station after the visual and acoustic sig- nals have been transmitted and acknowledged be- tween the two points. Electricity is drawn from a neighbouring gen- crating station. As the railway works upon the counter- balancing system, the additional power required is not very great. An electric motor drives a wheel to which is coupled the cable sheave or pulley, round which the cable is wound several times. Thus the drive is as direct as possible, while three braking sys- tems serve to control the mechanism very adequately.
The car itself is suspended from the travelling truck in such a way that it main- tains a horizontal position, irrespective of the gradient, and as it is fitted with large plate-glass windows, the sixteen passengers are afforded magnificent uninterrupted
AERIAL MOUNTAIN RAILWAYS
The Brakes.
views from their seats within. The roof is flat, and means of access to the overhead equipment is afforded for the driver in the event of anything going wrong or of attention to the track and truck being necessary. The suspender is a heavy piece of nickel steel, and the construction thereof, in conjunction with the wheeled truck, is such that it is impossible for the car to fall from the track.
The braking arrangements are of an elaborate character to secure the unques- tionable safety of the public. Should a hoisting rope break there is a powerful clip which instantly grips the track, and brings the car to a standstill, the application being automatic. This brake is so powerful that during the builder's trials, when one of the hoisting ropes was broken purposely, the vehicle only slipped back six inches before it came to a stop. Even if one of the track cables broke no alarm need be entertained, as the brake would come into operation instantaneously, and after the car had been stopped it could be restarted and driven slowly into its station along the remaining cable. This brake can be applied also by the driver from within the car in case of emergency, so that no matter what might happen it is impossible for the car to get out of control.
At the same time the stations are fitted both with automatic and hand-operating brakes to guard against various contin- gencies, such as the failure of the electric current, breakdown of the machinery, or of the car, etc. Then there is an accumu- lator battery, capable of running the rail- way for several hours continuously should the main supply give out. Even if this broke down while the cars were on the track, they can be wound in by hand, either with the passengers within or after an emergency car has been sent down the track to take off the travellers.
Even suppose everything went wrong, and that the cars were brought to a 6
dead standstill, impossible of recovery for the time being, the passengers are not confronted with the prospect of dangling in mid-air for an An indefinite period. The car ., g^it." °y carries an emergency apparatus in the form of a collapsible bag with a rigid bottom. This is lowered through a trap door in the floor, with the pas- senger standing upright within. There is no danger of a hurried descent to Mother Earth, because the lowering of this appar- atus is governed by a braking gear, so that the ground is reached without any perceptible jar.
The travelling speed upon the line is restricted very rigorously by the authorities, and expedients have had to
be introduced to keep within aowrmnent
Restrictions.
the prescribed limits. There
is a speed regulator which is set to the authorised maximum. Directly the car exceeds this point the automatic brake comes into action and checks the speed. Again, the authorities forbid the operation of the railway during high winds. An anemometer is mounted upon the roof of the upper station, and this is connected to a bell signal. Directly the wind exceeds a certain velocity, to which the apparatus is set, this bell warns the mechanic to suspend the service. As a matter of fact there is no danger of the highest winds imperilling the safety of working, but the regulations of the authorities must be obeyed.
Travelling by this aerial railway is marked by the complete absence of vibra- tion and oscillation. The cars start without any perceptible jolt and glide steadily and smoothly up and down the mountain sides. When approaching the station the speed is slackened automatically, and the vehicle is brought gently to rest. In addition to the telephone and electric lighting circuit be- tween the station for the transmission of the audible and visual starting signals, as well as other service communications, a
RAILWAY WONDERS OF THE WORLD
VIEW OF THE TRACK OF THE KOHLERER AERIAL Showing the method of suspending the car from carriage, and the two cables.
special telephone wire is provided for the convenience of the driver of the car. He is in continuous communication with both stations during the journey, and can notify the engineers at both ends the moment any untoward incident develops. Another aerial passenger railway, working upon a third system, the Ceretti-Tanfani, also has been completed in the Austrian Tyrol, to connect Lana with the summit of the Vigiljoch. While this system has been in operation upon its broad lines for the transportation of goods traffic in various parts of Europe for many years past, this is its first direct application to passenger service. In this instance, also, the Austrian Government proved most exacting in its
determination to protect the pub- lic. After the line was completed the government engineers sub- jected it to innumerable tests of all descriptions, submitting the safety devices to the most rigorous and searching trials before they extended the requisite sanction to carry passengers.
The line is divided into two sections. The first rises 1,730 feet, while in the second section the difference in level which is overcome is 2,100 feet. Thus there are three stations. The lower terminus contains the tension gear, comprising counter- weights aggregating 20 tons, for the lower line, while the upper- most station contains the elec- trical and other plant. The third is a half-way or change-over house. The counterbalancing system is adopted on both sections of the line, and the cars are suspended pendulum-fashion from the over- head trolley. The cable track comprises one main steel cable- way along which run two two- wheeled trucks mounted in tandem in a frame.
These wheels run along the top face of the cable, but underneath are guard wheels which prevent the trolley jumping the track, so that derailment is absolutely impossible. In addition to the hauling rope whereby the car is drawn to and fro, there is a brake rope on which the automatic brake of the car acts. If the exigencies of traffic demand that two cars shall travel one behind the other, each has its separate hauling rope, but the hauling rope of the leading car acts as the brake rope of the second vehicle, while the hauling rope of the following vehicle acts as the brake rope of the first car. Both these ropes are driven by drums which are operated by a common motor in the upper station, and should a braking
RAILWAY, the track
AERIAL MOUNTAIN RAILWAYS
43
rope snap, the car or cars can be braked by hand. This is an ingenious arrange- ment, and it constitutes one of the out- standing features of the Ceretti-Tanfani patent, the value of. which has been em- phasised in connection with the official inspection of this railway.
It might be anticipated that, when the automatic brake was applied suddenly by the failure of the hauling rope, there might be a tendency for the rear truck wheels to kick, and thus jump the line, but this is impossible owing to the guard wheels. These are kept hard pressed against the carrying rope by means of springs, and are only forced apart as the car glides over the line supports on the towers, the track wheels passing over the upper face of the shoe, while the guard wheels pass beneath it. Directly the car has passed the tower the guard wheels are forced against the track cable once more.
Elaborate safety devices of various descriptions to bring the car to a stand- still under all conditions of accident to the line are in- corporated, and it is virtually impossible to precipitate an accident to the vehicle and its occupants. This aerial railway is one of the longest in existence for the carriage of passengers ; no fewer than 39 lattice steel pyramid towers, ranging from 21 to 100 feet in height, according to the contour of the ground, are required to support the line. Some of the spans are of considerable length, the longest being about 720 feet. Each tower has two arms for supporting the track on either side, and the carrying cable, 2 1 inches in diameter,
made up of 238 stranded and spirally wound wires, will sustain a pull of 235 tons before breaking. The margin of safety consequently is very ample. The hauling and braking ropes are one half the thickness of the track cable, and have a breaking strain of 58 tons.
The foregoing European installations may be described as expressions de luxe in con- nection with aerial methods of travelling when compared with the " Sunrise Peak Aerial Railway — The World's Grandest Scenic Route," since in this instance the passengers are accommodated in a large bucket ! This line lacks all the finish of its Alpine prototypes, but, on the other hand, it introduces the traveller to most gorgeous scenic attractions. It is about
THE STARTING STATION ON THE KOHLERER AERIAL RAILWAY AT EISACK.
44
RAILWAY WONDERS OF THE WORLD
Ij miles in length, and lifts the sightseer from Silver Plume, at 9,000 feet above sea level, to the summit of Sunrise Peak, 3,500 feet higher.
" To the Clouds in a Bucket " is one of
the sensations of Colorado, and it must be
admitted that large numbers
"To the Of people avail themselves of Clouds in ... .. . .
a Bucket " ™is opportunity to attain one
of the eyries of the Rocky Mountains. The railway swings across yawning canyons, and over bleak wind- swept brown humps of the range, in its ever-upward climb. The track comprises a single cable, while propulsion is afforded by the endless haulage cable, l£ inches in diameter, which passes round a drum at either terminal. The travelling truck is fitted with two wheels each 4 inches in diameter.
The track is carried on supports re- sembling gallows in shape, made of timber members measuring 8 inches square. There are fifty of these towers distributed over the road, the length of the spans varying according to the mountain slope and the lay of the country traversed. The motive power is electricity, drawn from a gener- ating station four miles away, and drives two 35-horse-power motors, coupled to the winding drums, in the upper station.
The cars are merely huge buckets, similar to those employed for excavating purposes, and they are slung from the overhead travelling truck. There are 20 buckets on the line, spaced about 485 feet apart. The cars only make a brief stop at the station, and the passengers, in true American fashion, " have to get a move on " to make sure of their seats. Each bucket is strongly made of wrought iron, is 6 feet long by 4 feet wide, and has four seats. The car is entered through a side door, which, when the bucket is loaded, is shut and bolted firmly on the inside. There is no pro- tection from the weather, and should rain
be encountered at a higher altitude as though threatening a second deluge, or the sun pour down as if bent upon grilling, the inmates have to suffer in silence unless they have brought suitable conveniences with them.
Although there is a conspicuous lack of comfort or luxury upon this line, it has the compensating advantage of
giving the traveller a free, open, An
f . . . . Altitude of
inspiring view of gulch, peak, I2 500 feet
snow, cloud, and torrent from an altitude of 12,500 feet. There are five intermediate stations, built around the upper parts of the cable-supporting towers, each complete with its attendant, and the line is equipped with electric signals and telephones. Should any untoward mishap occur during the journey, the station- master can telephone to the engineer to stop the line, and communicate the nature of the accident.
This line demanded some three years in its construction, and although undeniably primitive, it involved an outlay of £14,000. It has proved a unique success, the touring public evidently tolerating imprisonment within a confined space for half-an-hour each way with the utmost good humour. "It is easier than climbing, anyway," comment the patrons of this railway, " and a darn sight quicker ! "
The success of the aerial railway is so marked that a new era in railway moun- taineering has dawned. There is no doubt but that in the future this method of scaling lofty peaks for the benefit of the tourist will undergo considerable development, and will be preferred generally to the cog- wheel and incline railways which have had such an extensive vogue. Certainly it will offer a means of carrying passengers to the crests of towering mountains which other- wise would be inaccessible by any other railway system, since no mountain flank is too precipitous for this type of line.
THE "BIG BULL-MOOSER " OF THE GREAT NORTHERN RAILROAD. U.S.A.
This Baldwin-Mallet compound locomotive (2-8-0, 0-8-0) is used for the heavier class of traffic— passengers and goods — among the mountains. Total weight, with tender, 300 tons.
Locomotive Giants— I
SHOWING THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE HUGE AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVES
NE of the most remarkable features of railway operation during recent years has been the development of the mam- moth locomotive. The era may be said to have com- menced in France, but it is the Americans who have brought this move- ment to its highest pitch of perfection.
The issue was forced upon the United States and Canadian railways. The necessity to haul immense loads, such as coal, ores, grain, etc., over long distances without breaking bulk, often struggling against heavy grades, presented peculiar difficulties. The eight, ten, or twelve-ton wagon common to the British railways became absolutely useless, because there- with, owing to the immense volume of the traffic to be handled, the lines would have become choked throughout the twenty-four hours with unwieldy long trains. During the year the United States railways have to handle over 1,500,000,000 tons of goods,
which is about one-sixth more than that moved on the combined railways of the United Kingdom, Germany, France, and Russia in the same period.
Under such circumstances the futility of the small wagon may be appreciated. But there was another factor which in- fluenced the situation very vitally. With the small wagon the proportion of " live " or paying tonnage in a train is small in comparison with the " dead " or non- paying train tonnage, while more train- miles have to be run in order to cope with the transportation of a certain volume of traffic. The point was to reduce both the number of train-miles and the proportion of the dead load. This could be accom- plished only by introducing larger vehicles. Accordingly there came the 30-ton wagon, which enabled the train to be shortened very appreciably.
Once this development started it went ahead rapidly. The vehicles were increased in capacity, until to-day there are cars on
45
46
RAILWAY WONDERS OF THE WORLD
the American and Canadian lines capable of carrying 75 tons.* This means that when 5,000 tons of coal, ore, grain, or what not have to be moved a matter of ten or fifteen hundred miles, a single American train of 40 vehicles will handle what would require 300 British 10-ton trucks. The operating expenses thus are decreased, as well as the train-miles, while the income per train is increased.
But the augmentation of the load per
train precipitated another problem. The
hauling power of a locomotive
The became overtaxed, so that it
Locomotive ....
Problem. was necessary to utilise two
engines to a train ; while for the negotiation of long steep banks through the mountains additional power had to be taken on, to push and haul the load over the hump, or else the train had to be divided and run in sections over the obstacle.
The locomotive engineers were urged to evolve larger and more powerful engines to dispense with " double-heading " and division of trains. This problem was not easy to solve, owing to the designer being cramped by the comparative narrowness of the standard gauge. The engineer in- creased the length and diameter of his boiler until he was unable to go another inch in either direction. Even then he encountered harassing difficulties in connec- tion with his fire-box and the complete combustion of his fuel. Additional driving wheels were introduced to secure the maximum adhesion and tractive effort, and remarkable ingenuity was displayed in order to secure efficient steaming qualities.
In this search for greater locomotive power many striking and interesting types of engines were evolved, some of which are foreign to British working. Among these were such huge creations as the " Con- solidation," the " Mastodon," and the " Mikado," with eight large drivers, the
* The American ton of 2,000 pounds, and gallon equivalent to '8 Imperial pints are used in the refer- ences to U.S.A. locomotives.
distinction between the types being attri- butable to the arrangement and number of the leading, trailing and driving wheels.
Here it may be as well to describe how locomotive types are classified. The collo- quial descriptions such as " At-
lantic," "Pacific," "Baltic," Classifica- - , „ i • i , • 11 i tion of
Consolidation, and so on are Locomotives.
somewhat confusing, inasmuch as they convey no idea of the arrangement and number of the wheels. So the Whyte numerical system has come into general vogue as conveying the wheel disposition most satisfactorily. In this classification the wheels are divided into three groups, viz. — leading, bogie, or pony truck ; drivers ; and trailers. Thus an engine set out as of the 4-4-2 class indicates that there is a four-wheeled pony truck, followed by four drivers, and two trailing wheels, forming the familiar " Atlantic " type. If there are no leading or trailing wheels, or if one or the other be omitted, the absence is indicated by a cipher. Thus the numerical classification of a " Consolidation " locomotive is 2-8-0, signi- fying a two-wheeled bogie, eight drivers, and no trailing wheels ; the " Mastodon " 4-8-0, with a four-wheeled bogie, eight drivers, and no trailing wheels ; the " Mikado " as 2-8-2, representing a two- wheeled pony truck, eight drivers, and two-wheeled trailer. In view of the manner in which the locomotive engineers " have rung the changes " on the arrangement of the wheels, the Whyte numerical classi- fication offers the simplest and most comprehensive method of nomenclature.
It was conceded generally that the ten driving wheel locomotive represented the limitations of design with a rigid
wheel base. While engineers Mallet's
, . ... . Articulated
were racking their brains as to
how to obtain greater power there appeared an invention which changed completely the whole problem of locomotive design. This was the articulated engine, as evolved by M. Anatole Mallet, of Paris.
RAILWAY WONDERS OF THE WORLD
Its appearance on the French rail- ways created a sensation. Amer- ican engineers, realising its advan- tages, and the fact that therewith it was possible to obtain that increase in power which was de- manded so urgently, embraced the idea forthwith.
The outstanding feature of the Mallet locomotive is the division of the frame into two parts, which are connected together by a hinged joint. Each section of the frame carries a set of driving wheels and a pair of cylinders. In this way it is possible to obtain an engine having as many as twenty driving wheels — in two groups of ten each — and no more resistance is en- countered in rounding curves than with an Atlantic engine. Com- pound working is adopted, the high pressure cylinders driving the inner, while the lower pressure cylinders drive the foremost group of wheels.
These monster engines for the most part are utilised for three distinct services — express ; pusher, to assist trains over steep grades ; and the haulage of long, heavy freight trains. They are giants in the fullest sense of the word. For instance, the Great Northern " Big Bull Moosers" used on the Rocky and Cascade mountain divisions turn the scale, engine and tender complete ready for the road, at 300 tons, while the wheel base is 83 feet 1 inch. The high pressure cylinders have a diameter of 28 inches, while the low pressure cylinders are 42 inches diameter, the stroke being 32 inches. The Belpaire conical boiler has a dia- meter of 90 inches ; the fire-box a length of 117£ inches by 96| inches wide, and 87 J inches deep
LOCOMOTIVE GIANTS
49
in front and 76J inches at the back. There are 332 tubes, each 24 feet in length, 2j and 5| inches in diameter. The fire-box has a heating surface of 245 square feet ; the combustion chamber 81 square feet ; tubes 6,120 square feet ; giving a total heating surface of 6,446 square feet. The grate area is 78-4 square feet. The driving wheels are 63 inches, and the truck wheels 33| inches in diameter respectively. The driving wheel base is 43 1 feet in length, with 16J feet for the rigid base, bringing the wheel base of the total engine to 52| feet. The weight on the drivers is 210 tons, and on the front truck 15 tons. The tender, mounted on eight wheels, each of 36 inches diameter, carries 8,000 gallons of water and 13 tons of soft coal which is used as fuel. The engine is also fitted with an Emerson superheater, having a surface of 1,368 square feet. The working pressure of the steam is 210 pounds per square inch. It exerts a tractive force of 100,000 pounds.
This articulated Mallet engine, built by the Baldwin Locomotive Works at Phila- delphia, has proved highly successful in the heaviest class of mountain service.
The Pennsylvania Company also have designed a very powerful locomotive, clas- sified by the company as the The H-8-b type, for its heaviest
£o7pYn™la frdght Service" This enginc (iiant. has four pairs of 62-inch
driving wheels, with a two- wheeled pony truck, 2-8-0 class. The total length of the driving-wheel base of the engine is 17 feet 0| inch, of the engine 25 feet 9£ inches, and of the engine and tender 59 feet 5| inches. The cylinders have a diameter of 24 inches with a stroke of 28 inches. The Belpaire wide fire-box is used, being 110£ inches long by a width of 72 inches, the total heating surface being 187 square feet. The boiler has a minimum internal diameter of 76| inches ; there are 465 tubes of 2 inches outside diameter, the total heating surface of the 7
tubes being 3,652 square feet. Steam is used at a pressure of 205 pounds per square inch. The weight of the engine in working order is 119-15 tons, of which 105-5 are upon the driving wheels. In working order the 8-wheel tender weighs 79 tons, the complete weight of the loco- motive therefore being 198-15 tons.
An interesting experiment was carried out with this engine in order to ascertain the precise freight - carrying
possibilities of the 127 miles A Train
.,. , „ , 4,888 feet
between Altoona and Enola in
Yard, opposite Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. This section of the system has been overhauled and reconstructed so as to secure no heavier rise than 12 feet per mile.
Engine No. 1221 of the H-8-b type was attached to a train of 120 steel gondola cars laden with coal. Each wagon carried 52 £ tons of mineral, so that the total consignment represented 6,300 tons. The complete weight of the train, including engine, cars, and brake- van, or caboose, was no less than 8,850 tons. From end to end this train measured 4,888 feet — more than nine- tenths of a mile.
Despite the huge load the one engine, having a tractive power of 42,661 pounds, hauled the train over the dis-
tance of 127 miles unaided, Telephone
,. , ... from Driver
occupying 9 hours 36 minutes to Quar(j.
on the journey, giving an average speed of 13 miles an hour. As, however, this time included delays aggre- gating some three hours, the actual run- ning speed averaged 19 miles an hour. In making the trip the engine consumed over 13 tons of coal.
A unique feature of the train was a telephone connection between the brakes- man in the rear van and the driver of the locomotive, the wires being carried along the sides of the vehicles.
While the Pennsylvania Railway Com- pany has no intention of operating such
RAILWAY WONDERS OF THE WORLD
A Huge "Mikado."
trains regularly, yet from time to time it embarks upon such tests to determine the capacity of its freight locomotives over the improved lines, where grades have been removed and curves compensated.
Recently some very powerful " Mikados," among the largest and most powerful of the 2-8-2 type, have been constructed. The Baldwin Locomotive Works have sup- plied some of the largest of this class yet built for the Chicago, Rock Island, and Pacific Railway, for service upon its system where no excessively steep grades are en- countered. The characteristic feature of this design is the boiler, which is constructed with a wide and deep fire-box, 84 inches wide by 90 inches deep at back, and 77 inches deep at the front. The grate is placed behind the driving wheels and above the trailers, thus obtaining a large amount of grate area and furnace volume. The boiler is 86 inches in diameter, the tubes 21 feet long, having a total heating surface of 4,004 square feet. The driving wheels are 63 inches in diameter. The engine has a length of 35 feet 2 inches, the over-all length of the locomotive being 67 feet 2 1 inches. The weight imposed on the drivers is 121-6 tons, while the total weight of the engine and 8-wheel tender, the latter loaded with 16 tons of soft coal and 9,000 gallons of water, is 240 tons.
Another well-known system, the Dela- ware, Lackawanna, and Western Railroad, has also introduced fifteen Mikados of much greater sustained capacity than those hitherto used in its service. They have been constructed by the American Loco- motive Company, and are being employed in the slow and fast goods service between Elmira and Buffalo.
The boiler, 86£ inches in diameter, has a total heating surface of 4,592-8 square feet, and works at a pressure of 180 pounds per square inch. The fire-box is 108 feet long by 74J inches wide. The cylinders
Weight, •*35'85 tons.
are of 28 inches diameter and 30 inches stroke. The grate area is 63-1 square feet, and the total heating surface 4,854-1 square feet with 1,085 square feet of superheater. The drivers, 63 inches in diameter, carry a weight of 118-75 tons, the total weight of the engine in working order being 156 tons. The 8-wheel tender, loaded with 14 tons of soft coal and 8,000 gallons of water, weighs 79-85 tons, bringing the complete weight of the locomotive to 235-85 tons.
These engines, with a maximum trac- tive power of 57,000 pounds, are super- seding Consolidation locomotives, having cylinders of 26 inches diameter by 30 inches stroke, and a theoretical maximum tractive power of 51,400 pounds, in the slow freight traffic, while in the express goods service they are replacing Mogul — 2—6-0 class — with cylinders 20| inches diameter and 26 inches stroke, and a maximum tractive power of 29,480 pounds. Although these Mikados have the same cylinder stroke as the superseded Consolidation engines, they have drivers of 63 inches instead of 57 inches. So far as the Moguls are concerned, these Mikados have almost 100 per cent. greater capacity.
Among the most impressive, and largest, as well as the most powerful engines yet constructed, the Mallet com- pounds built by the Atchison, JJ^ " 3°°° " Topeka, and Santa Fe Rail- way, forming what are known as the " 3000 " class in the railway's service, stand pre- eminent. The engine alone weighs 308 tons, of which 275 tons are distributed over the twenty driving wheels, the articulated classi- fication being 2-10-O, 0-10-2. The tender weighs 117 tons, bringing the total weight of the locomotive in running order up to 425 tons. Its length over all is 120 feet ri\ inches.
The high and low pressure cylinders respectively are of 28 and 38 inches diameter, with a common stroke of 32
LOCOMOTIVE GIANTS
inches. The fire-box, 149f inches long by 78 inches wide and 76 inches deep, has 294-5 square feet of heating surface. The 377 fire tubes have a heating surface of 3,625 square feet, while the superheater has a surface of 2,318-4 square feet. There is also the re-heater, and finally the feed-water heater, the tubes of which have a heating surface of 2,659-4 square feet. The introduction of the superheater, re-heater and feed-water heater represents the latest development in locomotive engineering, the functions of which are described later.
The driving wheels have a diameter of 57 inches, while that of the truck wheels is 34^ inches. The tender is carried on twelve wheels, and has capacity for 12,000 gallons of water and 4,000 gallons of oil, liquid fuel being used, while the working pressure of the steam is 225 pounds per square inch.
This huge locomotive has a maximum drawbar pull of 111,600 pounds, and in an experimental run to ascertain its hauling capacity one of its class drew a train of 100 loaded freight cars, representing a live weight of 4,341 tons, from Emporia to Argentine, a distance of 111-5 miles, where the maximum grade is 21 feet per mile, in 6 hours 20 minutes. It has hauled a load of 1,911 tons at a speed of 12 miles per hour over a grade rising 79'2 feet per mile. At a speed of 10 miles per hour the engine develops some 3,000 horse power. At present these engines are being utilised for the most part in territory served by the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Rail- way, where the ruling grade is 90 feet per mile, the train-loads upon this division averaging 1,900 tons, and the speed ranging between 12 and 15 miles per hour. Other locomotives of this class are reserved for pusher service, to assist the regular trains over Cajon Mountain in California, where the grade runs as high as 180 feet per mile. These Santa Fe giants have aroused world-wide interest.
A TEST LOAD FOR ONE OF THE " 300( The run was from Emporia to Argentine, 111-5 miles, with a load of 100 cars, which extended o\
*• r
THE GIGANTIC MALLET COMPOUND BUILT FOR TH1 The engine weighs 308 tons, and the tender 117 tons, a tots
LASS LOCOMOTIVES SHOWN BELOW.
000 feet, and represented 4,341 tons weight. The journey was accomplished in 6 hours 20 minutes.
LTCHISON, TOPEKA AND SANTA FE RAILWAY, f 425 tons. Its length over all is 120 feet 7J inches.
THE DOUBLE-LIFT .BRIDGE AT PORTLAND OREGON. End view of bridge showing flared ends to the railway and the approach to the upper level.
A Telescopic Double-Lift Bridge
AN INGENIOUS ENGINEERING DEVELOPMENT TO COPE WITH RAILWAY, SHIPPING
AND VEHICULAR TRAFFIC
NE of the most perplexing situ- ations in railway building is the necessity to cross a busy waterway at a low level, owing to the physical characteristics of the banks on either side. In order that no serious re- striction may be imposed upon navigation, it is imperative that the bridge shall be provided with some means of opening so as to permit vessels to pass up and down easily. When this handicap is asso- ciated with a busy city, spreading over the opposite banks, the problem becomes aggravated, as the engineer is cramped for space in which to achieve his object.
Many ingenious methods have been elaborated to meet such conditions. There is the swing bridge, in which a span of the bridge is able to swing round in a semi- circle upon a pivotal pier, thereby providing two channels — one on either side of the support. Another expedient, which has come into vogue extensively during recent years, is the bascule bridge, in which the moving section of the structure, being hinged at one end, is raised and lowered like a drawbridge. A third method, which, however, is not employed very freely, is the vertical lift bridge, wherein the span is raised bodily in conjunction with counter- weights, between two supporting towers,
54
A TELESCOPIC DOUBLE-LIFT BRIDGE
55
this system being similar in its principle and operation to the sash-line window.
Recently a new and ingenious develop- ment in connection with the last named method has been introduced. The It is the patent of two
ofethlrementS American engineers, Waddell Service. and Harrington, and it
possesses many interesting features. The Oregon- Washington Rail- road and Navigation Company desired a new entrance into the city of Portland, Oregon. The Willamette, which divides the city in twain, is a broad, deep river, enabling large vessels to reach this point from the sea.
When the railway first entered the city it built a large steel bridge with a swing span, which it was concluded would meet all the requirements of navigation and yet at the same time would not hinder railway operations. But the trade of the port has increased amazingly during recent years, with the result that the swing span was constantly having to be opened and closed. On the yearly average this occurred 70 times a day — practically once every 20 minutes — while in one interval of 24 hours it has been opened as many as 134 times.
Such frequent manipulations handicapped
the railway traffic very seriously, so the
company decided to build a
Swing new bridge across the waterway,
Inadequate ^®® ^ee^ &bove the original swing bridge. This decision was seized as an opportunity to improve the vehicular and pedestrian traffic between the two banks, so a double deck bridge was adopted, the lower deck being for the rail- way, and the upper level for public use. But the question of protecting the naviga- tion interests arose. The various methods of operating a moving span economically and expeditiously were investigated at length. In this case the problem was complicated by the top deck used by the public, which it was essential should be
kept open as much as possible so that inconvenience to vehicular and pedestrian intercommunication might be reduced to the minimum. Obviously, both the swing and bascule systems had to be ruled out of court, because it was impossible to place the upper deck at such a level as to be beyond interruption at intervals. It was a peculiar problem which demanded a special solution. The railway engineers thereupon investigated the Waddell and Harrington invention, and finding that it met the situation very completely, it was adopted forthwith.
The river channel is crossed by three spans — a fixed span 287 feet in length on either side, flared at the shore ends to provide for the neces- A Double- sary curvature of the railway
lines, and a centre movable span 220 feet long. The public deck of the bridge being nearly 50 feet above the level of the railway, suitable approaches at the ends had to be provided to secure an easy grade. That at the east end is by means of a viaduct 305 feet in length ; on the west bank there is a highway approach 512 feet long. Thus the over-all length of the structure is 794 feet for the railway, and 1,611 feet for the public use.
The moving span, which rises vertically between two towers by means of counter- weights, is telescopic. That is to say, the moving span is so built that the lower deck may be raised independently of the upper deck. This is a distinct advantage, inasmuch as this vertical travel amounts to 46 feet. Accordingly, when the railway deck is raised until it touches the floor of the upper deck, a clearance of 72 feet above low water is secured. This is sufficient headroom for the greater pro- portion of the river traffic, so that there is no necessity to disturb the public high- way. When, however, a large vessel with tall masts approaches, demanding a greater clearance, the bottom deck first is tele-
e
RAILWAY WONDERS OF THE WORLD
THE BRIDGE OPEN FOR VEHICULAR. PEDESTRIAN. AND TRAIN SERVICE. The trains run over the lower deck.
scoped, and then, together with the higher level of the span, is lifted until the whole moving part comes to rest near the top of the towers, whereby a clearance of 165 feet at low water is given. By this pro- vision all but the very largest craft coming to Portland are able to proceed through the bridge.
The independent movement of the bottom deck is accomplished by supporting the railway floor system and lateral truss on hanger posts from the upper movable span. Each hanger is connected to four cables, and is designed to move vertically inside the corresponding vertical post of the upper movable span. Both railway and public decks are counterbalanced with concrete weights. The lower moving sec- tion has eight of these counterweights, dis- posed four on each side, each section of four having an aggregate weight of 212 tons. The upper deck has two similar weights, each weighing 866 tons.
The river piers were sunk by the open
caisson method. These were landed on cement gravel at a depth of 123 feet below low water. The six dredging wells were excavated to a depth of 10 feet below the cutting edge of the caisson, and the concrete was deposited under water by means of bottom dump buckets. In the completion of the sub-structure work some 30,000 cubic yards of concrete were used.
The steel viaduct carrying the highway approach on either side1 was erected by means of a 30-ton skid derrick, having a boom 45 feet in length. This plant also set the upper floor system and laterals for the fixed spans, as well as the lower mem- bers of the two towers, the heaviest single piece which it was called upon to handle weighing 29 tons, represented by a beam for the upper deck. The two fixed spans were erected by the aid of timber falsework, which was built upon the double bent system with 22 piles. For the raising and placing of the truss members and the lower floor a barge, or scow, derrick was devised.
A TELESCOPIC DOUBLE-LIFT BRIDGE
57
This had sheer legs 110 feet in length, fashioned from four heavy piles. By means of this apparatus a chord section weighing as much as 54 tons was set in position.
The building of the vertical lift span, and the movable railway deck, had to be carried out in such a manner that no interference was offered to the river traffic, and also in such a way as to be as independent as possible of the level of the water in the river. A clearance of 116 feet above low water was considered to be sufficient for the purpose. Four wooden cantilever brackets were put together on barges, and by means of the floating sheer- leg derrick were hoisted in position on the adjacent ends of the fixed spans. The bases of these brackets rested on the piers, while the tops were anchored to the fixed spans by means of iron rods 2| inches in diameter, four rods being used for each bracket. The two skid derricks then were rigged with booms 110 feet in length, and
by their aid four Howe trusses, measuring 120 feet long, and weighing 40 tons each, were lifted and set upon the timber brackets. The iron required for this falsework was fashioned from the scrap of old spans removed from the railway company's line several years previously.
In the erection of the two towers carrying the counterweights, as well as the sheaves, a gallows -frame, 152 feet in height, was built and lifted into position on top of the Howe truss falsework. This was anchored back to the truss and hinged at the base, so as to obtain sufficient rotation to set any members of the towers into the requisite position. The heaviest lift which this gallows-frame effected was the section of a tower post weighing 42 tons. The steel used in the erection of the towers was loaded on to cars which were run out to the site over the railway deck. They were hoisted through a hole in the upper deck, this having been obtained by leaving out the stringers
THE BRIDGE OPEN FOR VEHICULAR AND PEDESTRIAN TRAFFIC ONLY. The lower deck raised so as to telescope within the upper span.
RAILWAY WONDERS OF THE WORLD
of two panels of the latter, sufficient clear- ance thus being provided to permit the passage of the largest sections of steel.
The members of the lift span were handled by a traveller 96 feet in height. A con-
sufficient play for the stretch of the ropes, and to provide requisite ease in connecting the cables, was ensured. After the con- crete had set, and directly the lift-span was completed, the sand was permitted to run
struction tramway was laid on the upper out of the boxes, so that the weights gradu-
THE BRIDGE OPEN FOR SHIPPING.
The lower span is telescoped and the whole lifted so as to give a clearance of 165 feet on the navigable channel. The descending counterweights close the thoroughfare on the public level
of the bridge.
deck of the east span and viaduct, over which a " creeper " car travelled. The steel was brought up on cars to the viaduct, and a derrick hoisted the sections therefrom on to the creeper car, which was then run out to the erecting point.
While the lift span was being built the casting of the concrete counterweights pro- ceeded. These were prepared in their ulti- mate positions within the towers. The forms whereby these weights were moulded rested on boxes containing a layer of sand 18 inches in depth, and the moulds were placed 18 inches above the position they were to occupy ultimately. By this arrangement
ally descended to their requisite level and took up the ropes, thereby swinging, or taking up the weight of the lift span, so as to enable the falsework to be demolished.
The lower or railway deck of the movable spaix was erected in sections on barges, a floor beam and two hangers first being riveted up, and then raised into position. The concrete counterweights for this deck were cast separately for each panel joint, and they were previously cast and sup- ported on falsework on the upper deck. So soon as a panel joint was in place it was connected to its cables and supported by the counterweight. All the hanger posts,
A TELESCOPIC DOUBLE-LIFT BRIDGE
59
with the floor beams, were set first, the stringers and lower lateral truss being filled in subsequently.
By these ingenious arrangements the con- struction of the most difficult section of the bridge — the moving span — was completed without any material interference to navi- gation. All river traffic was able to pass to and fro without the slightest hindrance. The methods adopted furthermore secured rapid construction.
The machinery house for the operation of the moving sections is placed centrally on the deck above the highway level of the bridge. The mechanism is operated electrically. A large gauge is provided on either side of the bridge extending from the top of the piers to the point corresponding with the level of the telescoping railway deck, so that the navigator can determine the clearance available both when the lower deck and when the two spans are raised to the full limit of their respective travels. When the public level is lifted, the two descending counterweights block the thoroughfare on either side of the opening.
The total weight of the bridge is 8, 585' 8 tons, divided up as follows : —
West highway approach . 687 tons
East highway approach . 398'8 „
Four 80-feet deck railway
girders .... 103 „
East riveted span . . 2,230 tons West riveted span . . 1,948 „ Lift span with lifting deck . 1,594 „ Towers .... 799 „ Tramway poles, balustrade,
gas and water mains, etc. . 342 „ Machinery and motors. . 484 „ while its total cost was £383,000.
The bridge was completed for railway traffic on July 23rd, 1912, while the public highway was finished a fortnight later. Since it was opened, the chief engineer of the railway informs me that the bridge has been working with perfect and entire satis- faction. The time occupied in raising both decks to the maximum clearance above low water — 165 feet — is If minutes, while lowering requires a similar interval. The result is, that when a sea-going ship with high masts desires to pass through the bridge, the public traffic on the upper deck is interrupted for five minutes. As the bulk of the navigation, however, demands only the moving of the lower or railway deck, the interference offered to vehicular and pedestrian traffic is so slight as to be insignificant. The unique success of this installation doubtless will lead to the wider adoption of the idea where similar condi- tions prevail, and where it is often essential to utilise a bridge both for public and railway services.
LEVELLING AND BALLASTING THE LINE. The work was done entirely by negro laboui
The Railway Invasion of the Gold
Coast
HOW THE SEKONDI-COOMASSIE RAILWAY WAS DRIVEN THROUGH THE
PRIMEVAL FORESTS
w
HILE every great railway pos- sesses its individual romance, yet, tucked away here and there, in odd corners of the globe, are short isolated lengths of the steel highway which claim more than ordinary attention. Among these are the railways of West Africa, and in particular that of the Gold Coast, which possesses a romantic glamour which is peculiarly its own.
The popular conception of this section of the African continent is somewhat hazy.
Generally it is dismissed as " The White Man's Grave," comprising vast tracts of dense, impenetrable, fever-laden jungle, concealing lagoons and swamps, where death lurks unseen in a hundred different forms. This impression, however, is quite wrong. The country certainly has a cli- mate which is far from kind to the white man at present, in the same manner as the frost-bound wilderness of Canada was a certain death-trap until the pioneers opened it up to let in the sunlight. As West Africa becomes settled and deve-
60
THE RAILWAY INVASION OF THE GOLD COAST 61
loped, the insalubrious conditions will disappear ; the country will be rendered as tenantable and as attractive as the southern extremity of the continent.
The idea of criss-crossing these vast expanses of virgin territory by the railway was suggested first by Mr. (afterwards Sir) William Shelf ord, M.Inst.C.E. "Railways were the obsession of this accomplished engi- neer, and he concentrated his activities and skill upon West Africa. In the early nineties of the last century he attacked
shore of the Gold Coast is hemmed in by a thick belt of jungle, 150 miles or more in width. To venture into this huge, un- trodden forest demanded no small amount of pluck and determination. The exotic vegetation presented a solid barrier, through which advance could be made only by hacking and cutting, since the jungle was intersected by very few, narrow, and tor- tuous paths, trodden down by the feet of the natives.
The railway conquest of West Africa was
r ->>%''-••
Li- ' t _.<f
BUILDING UP THE GRADE TO TRACK LEVEL.
the problem vigorously, because he fore- saw that, once this untouched region was given a fair start, settlement and develop- ment must go ahead with a rush.
At that time West Africa was a verit- able " Tom Tiddler's Ground,'" awaiting the coming of the capitalist and toiler. But the machinery of development could not be set in motion until facilities were offered for access to the interior. The
inaugurated with the dispatch of a survey party to Sierra Leone in 1893 by Mr. Shelford, the Colonial Office having decided to open up the hinterland. Actual con- structional work was commenced in 1896. Step by step the railway, of 2 feet 6 inch gauge, was driven forward from Freetown xmtil it had reached Pendembu, 230 miles up country, and a short distance from the Liberian frontier.
62
RAILWAY WONDERS OF THE WORLD
The first attempt to survey the unknown interior for the ribbon of steel proved disastrous. Three Englishmen A Malaria- started out to make the recon- District naissancc. The party com- prised a surveyor, his assistant, and a doctor. The latter was indispensable, owing to the country's evil reputation. Disease was more to be dreaded than any form of hostility or accident. The sur- face of the ground is carpeted with a thick layer of decaying vegetation — the putre- faction of centuries — and the rainfall, which is severe, has converted this bed of leaves, branches, and dead-fall into a spongy, soddened mass, freely interspersed with pools and swamps, where the mosquito and other pests multiply by the million. Accordingly, malaria is rife ; in fact, at that time it held the country more securely against a white invasion than the most cunning and determined tactics of the unfriendly natives.
The trio had not gone far before the
formidable character of their undertaking
was revealed very vividly. The
An swarming implacable insects
Unfortunate , ., . „ . , .,
Expedition, counted their first victory : the
doctor was bowled over by malaria. This was the sorriest trick that fortune could have played, and it was decidedly unnerving. Then the assistant fell a victim to the malady, and before the gravity of the situation was grasped he had crossed " The Divide." It is not surprising that the surveyor himself, who had cheated misfortune, was dismayed by this calamity. His first care was the interment of his dead chum. He gave him as Christian a burial as the limited cir- cumstances of the bush permitted. The provisions were tumbled out of the thin wooden boxes in which they had been packed for transport, and from these few sticks a crude coffin was contrived, in which the body was committed to a hastily-dug grave. As the doctor was recovering slowly, the surveyor packed his
traps and made a laboured, painful return to the capital, where, after the grim story was related, arrangements for another dash through the inhospitable interior were prepared.
It was the discovery of gold which prompted the construction of the first rail- way on the Gold Coast. Intrepid prospectors braved the pesti- Gold as lential forests and diligently |ncentjve. panned the up-country streams. They discovered traces of colour, and, following up the clues, at last struck the main reef of yellow metal at Tarkwa, some 40 miles from the seaboard. The news of the discovery precipitated the inevitable rush, as well as an inflow of capital, but it was no easy matter to gain the alluring gold belt. There were no facilities for transporting the essential heavy and cum- bersome machinery to the claims, while the conveyance of the yellow fruits of ex- hausting labour to the coast was just as laborious. Incoming vessels had to dis- charge into small boats which ran the gauntlet of the heavy surf and dodged the sand-bars which littered the waterway leading to the interior. They crept up the river with considerable difficulty to a point as near the mining area as possible and there unloaded. The material then had to be tugged, pushed, and carried over rude tracks through the jungle to the mines. By the time the mines were reached transport charges had run away with £40 per ton.
No industrial concern could work under such conditions and show a profit. Accord- ingly it was decided to drive a railway from a convenient point on the coast to Tarkwa. After scouring the shore line of the Gold Coast from end to end, it was decided to create a terminal port at what was virtually an unknown spot, which then was little more than a native village — Sekondi. It is not a harbour, but merely a small, open bay ; but it was the only choice between two evils. Possibly, some
A TEMPORARY BRIDGE OVER THE SUYAM RIVER. This view shows the nature of the country through which the railroad runs.
64
RAILWAY WONDERS OF THE WORLD
day, when the colony attains a position of greater prosperity, and in view of the fact that Sekondi occupies a strategical posi- tion in relation to the developed interior, harbour works will be taken in hand, to remedy the deficiencies of Nature for the safety and convenience of shipping.
Having secured a foothold on the coast, the railway builders undertook to drive
clear view 100 feet ahead can be obtained is despairing toil. The country was found to be gently undulating, but the majority of the depressions were filled with swamp or stagnant, fetid pools, concealed frona sight by the overgrowing scrub, so thJt a sudden immersion to the thighs or wain was by no means uncommon ; while sue! unseemly disturbance of a silent lagoon
BUILDING THE ANCOBRA BRIDGE. The most important on the line. The central span is of 180 feet.
their line forward from that point. The first section comprised some 40 miles, but it was as hard a 40-mile stretch as any engineer could wish to tackle. There was the densely-matted jungle, a fearful cli- mate, a fiendish rainfall, and a compara- tive absence of gravel with which to carry out the earthworks. Englishmen, of course, were in demand to superintend operations ; but it proved to be no white man's land in those early days. The deadly climate mowed them down like flies, while some of stronger physique, although they outwitted the " old man with the scythe," went raving mad.
Yet the surveyors had painted the picture of what was to come very con- vincingly. Events proved they did not exaggerate the conditions one whit. They themselves had had many a stiff struggle to advance. Driving survey lines through a gloomy forest which is so dense and overgrown with brush that it is seldom a
was sufficient to provoke dense swarms of mosquitoes to spirited attack.
In such country as this the man with the transit and level must be gifted with what the American terms aptly " a nose for a railway," meaning an instinct, cultivated by prolonged and difficult experience, to obtain the best route in the shortest time and with the minimum of expense. When the outlook is shut in on all sides by dense vegetation, it is a toss-up whether the line already plotted is really so good as one which might be found a few miles to one side or the other. Still, each of half a dozen different routes is certain to pos- sess superior features here and there. The problem is the selection of the line which offers the greatest number of advantages and the minimum of defects. No matter how completely the engineer may achieve his task, the sum of his efforts is certain to meet with criticism, as a result of sub- sequently acquired knowledge.
THE RAILWAY INVASION OF THE GOLD COAST 65
Surveying in tropical climes is attended ith another factor which is not cncount- •ed in more temperate regions. The ccidcd route or " location " is indicated y a row of pegs, spaced 100 feet apart — ic length of a chain — down the centre of
encountered occasionally in searching for the location pegs by the constructional armies. When a nude stick planted by the surveyor has grown into a fully-fledged tree by the time the railway builder arrives, identification is by no means easy. Accord-
MONTHLY PAY-DAY IN CAMP ON THE GOLD COAST RAILWAY.
;he narrow survey cleavage through the scrub. These pegs indicate the centre of ;he track. At regular intervals they are supplemented on one side or the other by mother stake, known as a " bench mark," in which is indicated the altitude at that particular point. When it came to setting Dut these indispensable pegs in West Africa the engineer was confronted with the possibility of indulging unwittingly in a plan of re-afforestation. The stakes being cut from green wood invariably started to sprout after he had moved on. Then, as the survey line became obliterated in a very short space of time, owing to the amazingly rapid growth of the scrub, lively interludes and waste of time were
ingly whenever a bench or location mark of importance had to be indicated the surveyor utilised something devoid of sprouting propensities. This generally assumed the form of a small block of concrete, sunk into the ground, from the centre of which projected a few feet of iron barrel. Such an expedient, while highly effective, has to be used but sparingly when one has to move rapidly through a dense country and when the only available transport facilities are the heads of natives !
The right-of-way is somewhat of more imposing width on the Gold Coast than generally is allocated for this purpose. This is essential to protect the track and
66
RAILWAY WONDERS OF THE WORLD
the telegraph wires from the destructive
effects of windfalls. Some of the trees
indigenous to this country are
Problem? of huSe Pr°P°rtions' ranging between 20 and 30 feet at the butt, and running to a height of 140 feet or more. Owing to the exceed- ingly wet character of the climate, the trees, generally speaking, are of little or no commercial value, being for the most part " soft." Pulping would appear to be their only possible commercial use. In fact this should offer a great attraction, seeing that British manufacturers are com- pelled to go two or three thousand miles afield for their supplies of raw material in the paper-making industry.
While many of the larger trees are some- what hollow and brittle, being analogous in this respect to the Canadian cotton- wood, others are solid through the butt. Such a tree offers a pretty problem in its removal from the right-of-way, two or three days' continuous labour being re- quired to bring it to the ground. In clearing operations natives were used almost exclusively, and although hand- felling with primitive tools may seem to lack expedition, in this instance the native was found to be more efficient, reliable, and cheaper than the much-vaunted modern methods. As these large trees averaged about twenty to the acre of right-of-way, and about 40 acres per mile had to be cleaned of all vegetation, this initial task in itself was a stupendous undertaking.
The felling of the trees and the cutting
of the luxuriant undergrowth was only
one, and the easiest, half of
Remfdy! the WOrk" When brought to the ground the vegetation had
to be destroyed, as it was useless for constructional purposes. The large trees were split, hacked to pieces, piled and fired, which, owing to the wet climate and the wood being green, occupied time. Then came reckoning with the stump.
As with the majority of trees growing in a wet region, and where there is a thick upper layer of decaying vegetable matter, the roots do not thrust themselves very deeply into the subsoil, but rather radiate in all directions along the surface. The usual method of treating these obstacles,. was to dig around the stump, severing the roots, and then to haul the mass to one side by the aid of rope and tackle to be burned in due course. Though progress was some- what slow under these conditions, it was preferable to blasting the stumps, as it enabled native labour to be used, whereas i expert and highly paid skill would have! been necessary.
Although the swathe through the forest! is 300 feet wide, the windfall obstruction of the railway is not eliminated
entirely. Indeed, the inter- Windfall . ' Dangers.
ruptions from this cause upon
the Gold Coast number about two hundred per annum ; falling trees con- stitute the worst foe against which the management is pitted. The tall giants,? owing to indifferent root-hold, are brought down very easily by a high wind, and as those on the edge of the clearing naturally lean towards the light, ninety-nine times! out of a hundred they topple across the metals.
As the Gold Coast, from its hot, moist j climate, is virtually a gigantic greenhouse, ii the undergrowth thrives amaz-
inglv. So much so that it The Ever' . encroaching
is necessary to cut it back Vegetation.
about twice a year; otherwise the permanent way runs the risk of being blotted out within a very short space of time. Thus the expense of clearing does not end with the initial operation ; main- tenance of the open space through the jungle is unavoidably expensive ; in fact ; it represents a prominent item in the . working costs.
As a rule when such a country is opened i up by railway, a pioneer line is laid. ' Expense is kept down to the lowest i
THE RAILWAY INVASION OF THE GOLD COAST 67
Wise iPolicy.
ossible amount, the engineers following ic path of least resistance, reducing earth- orks to the minimum as well as dis- egarding the elements of curvature and rade. Then, as the railway settles down nd the traffic grows, elaborate overhauling s taken in hand and the line is rebuilt ractically. This policy has been found to e the most successful and remunerative n the United States, Canada and Australia, ut it has its drawbacks ; re-aligning Iways is expensive, as I demonstrate in subsequent chapter.
In the case of the Gold Coast Railway ic guiding principle was " First cost : last cost." True it made the bill for construction somewhat heavy, but the wisdom of the bolicy has been justified completely by results. No grades exceeding 1 in 50 or :urves of a less radius than 330 feet permitted. Some heavy earthworks )ecame requisite at places, while some of ;he embankments are of large proportions. The rails, weighing 50 Ib. per yard, are aid upon pressed steel sleepers — wood was useless — while there is a complete absence of timber trestles or bridges from one end of the line to the other.
Although a high-class railway was laid down the constructional costs were reduced appreciably by exclusive resort to native abour and methods. One searched the grade in vain for steam shovels and other heavy and expensive mechanical appli- ances familiar to similar works in other parts of the world — all because the negro and his crude ways and means of doing things were found to be quicker, better, and cheaper. Nor was the spoil removed from this cutting to build up that em- ibankment, as is the invariable rule. The former was thrown to one side, while the material required to fill a depression was taken from an adjacent ballast, or " bor- row " pit.
The engineers were handicapped seriously by being compelled to carry every ounce of
material required for the railway from the railhead, whence it was brought by train to the point of construction
upon the heads of natives. On "A
Gol-durned one occasion the engineer was Country."
describing the methods which had been adopted to a party of interested gentlemen, among whom was an American. The latter was familiar with the procedure followed by railway builders in his own country, and that human heads should be utilised for transport purposes perplexed him keenly. He reflected for a few seconds, and then, determined to solve what to him was a quaint puzzle, he fired the inevitable " Why ? "
" Oh ! Because there was no other way ! " was the retort.
'' What ? " ejaculated the astonished American. " Weren't there any animals —horses, mules or oxen ? "
" No ! " retorted the engineer blandly. " Only snakes and mosquitoes ! "
The American was nonplussed, but he dismissed the Gold Coast as being a " Gol-durned country."
The disadvantage of building the railway from one end only was that as rapidly as an embankment was raised
the rails had to be laid over Subsidences
and it, no interval being per- Wash-outs.
mitted to allow settlement to take place. Inasmuch as the earth- works were built on treacherous ground, although the depressions were drained as far as practicable, and the ballast was little better than loam or silt, subsidences were frequent. When the wet season set in the new earthworks suffered heavily at places, the soft soil either being washed away, packing tightly, or spreading, thereby producing ominous " sink holes." Further dumping and ballasting had to be carried out, the metals being lifted with jacks as the ballast was tamped beneath. To make matters worse, as the line approached the gold district, the mines, instead of shipping their material over the route followed
68
RAILWAY WONDERS OF THE WORLD
before the coming of the railway, landed supplement their means of existence. The
it at Sekondi and dispatched it to the wages from the civilised point of view
railhead, whence it was transported over- certainly were not princely, averaging a
land. The result was that the railhead shilling per day with all found, but the
not only became choked with railway con- native was perfectly satisfied. When work
TESTING A BRIDGE CN THE GOLD COAST RAILWAY.
structional material for the line, but also with goods for the mines.
As the railway penetrated the jungle the labour question became somewhat acute. The forest is practically tenantless. White labour was impossible, even if it had been available, from motives of cost and the susceptibility of the white man to the dreaded indigenous diseases. So a native recruiting campaign was in- augurated. The District Commissioners of the British West African colonies circulated appeals for labourers throughout their respective territories. At first the harvest was not very inspiring, but as the negroes learned that the White Man's money was certain and regular, and that fair treatment was meted out, while good food was pro- vided, they accepted the opportunity to
was in full swing 16,000 natives found steady employment, 12,000 of whom were brought in from Lagos. Upon the com- pletion of the railway this vast army, or those who preferred, were restored to their homes. The natives proved to be highly intelligent, and for the most part developed into good workmen. They were accommodated in large camps, which assumed such proportions, with serried rows of well-thatched huts, as to suggest prosperous native villages.
The negroes proved tractable and, on the whole, were not so lazy as those found in other parts of the continent. Squads of natives were drilled to act as police, and they kept law and order in a perfect manner. Once a month the whole toiling population lined up round the engineer's
THE RAILWAY INVASION OF THE GOLD COAST 69
hut, gaily bedecked and dressed as if for a fete. In the hut was a table and one or two engineers, before whom the natives passed in a regular, well-ordered queue to draw the reward for their labours in the coin of the realm.
The cost of construction was inflated very appreciably owing to the distance of the railway from the purchasing mar- kets. Every ounce of provisions, building material, and other necessaries had to be brought from England. The one item of freight was exceedingly heavy, many articles by the time they were landed at Sekondi having increased seven- or eight-fold in price, and this handicap was felt most seriously in connection with such com- modities as matches, sugar, soap, and so forth.
A vessel laden with supplies put out from Liverpool once every month while
work was in progress. The commissariat was a heavy responsibility, bearing in mind the large army of toilers that had to be fed. But the arrangements were laid so carefully that no apprehensions ever arose under this heading, although now and again everything went awry from some unforeseen mishap, such as the total wreck of a supply steamer off the West African coast. Losses in landing at Se- kondi, owing to the absence of harbour facilities, were considerable, but this was a drawback which could not be com- passed. These misfortunes, however, affected the progress of the railway more adversely than the labourers. Several weeks' delay ensued while duplicate orders of the lost material were being fulfilled at home and shipped.
As the railway was approaching Tarkwa in 1899 the first serious indication of native
...
A CONSTANT MENACE TO SECTIONS OF THE GOLD COAST RAILWAY. A wash-out in the Achemotah Valley.
RAILWAY WONDERS OF THE WORLD
hostility to the white invasion became
manifest. In April, 1900, King Prempeh
rose in rebellion. The dis-
Thf affection spread like wildfire.
Ashanti
Rebellion. The engineers working on the
advance works, or engaged in survey-revision work, were deserted, while the negroes imported into the country for the enterprise, becoming nervous, re- treated towards the coast or the big camps. The survey engineers, concluding that the rising was somewhat trivial, stuck to their ground, only to retreat when they learned the true significance of the outbreak, or to be driven in. Work at the railhead was thrown all sixes and sevens. Importa- tion of labourers from the adjacent terri- tories was stopped summarily, the govern- ment fearing that upon being landed the recruits might go over to the enemy. The natives already in employment were com- mandeered by the military authorities to act as carriers for the troops selected for the forced march to Coomassie to quell the outbreak. There was a complete dis- organisation, and everything was brought to a standstill.
In 1899, prior to the outbreak of the war, Mr. Frederic Shelford, who had taken over the reins of railway build- e uo d mg Operations upon the retire- ment of his father, and who inherited the pioneer's enthusiasm in a vigorous railway expansion policy for the Gold Coast, matured plans for continu- ing northwards from Tarkwa to Coo- massie. Prospectors scouring the country north of the existing gold district had discovered further deposits of the yellow metal. Mr. Shelford, having been on the spot, recognised the extent of this later discovery, as well as the possibilities of developing other resources which were lying dormant. Thus the moment was oppor- tune for extension, and he communicated his views to the Right Honourable Joseph Chamberlain, who was then Colonial Secre- tary. The Minister was sympathetic, but
Extension to Coomassie.
a counter-proposal had been advanced by Sir William Maxwell, the Governor of the Gold Coast, for the building of a line from Accra, the English capital, to Coomassie. Mr. Chamberlain agreed that a railway should be built to the Ashanti strong- hold, though he suggested that surveys should be made both from Accra and Tarkwa respectively to Coomassie. He promised, whichever route was the more favourable, that construction should be undertaken without delay, as he was fully alive to the urgent necessity of the enter- prise.
The survey between Tarkwa and Coo- massie was undertaken by Mr. Frederic Shelford personally, and he started out with one assis- tant and fifty native porters. Progress was found to be even more dif- ficult than it had been between the coast and Tarkwa. It was an endless tramp through a succession of evil swamps and dense jungle, where the rainfall is terrific, 4 or 5 inches of water being by no means uncommon in a single " tropical shower." There was not a single native track to help Mr. Shelford. His compass was his sole guide, and he hacked and hewed his path foot by foot. In order that he should not be impeded in his reconnais- sance, the personal impedimenta had been reduced to the scantiest necessities. No camp outfit was carried beyond a few utensils for the preparation of the food, and to filter and boil the drinking water. At the end of the day a small clearing a few feet in circumference was made, to allow the camp, such as it was, to be pitched, while the ground, with its damp pile of rotting vegetation, constituted their couch.
This expedition also met with misfor- tune. Mr. Shelford's assistant was struck down by black-water fever before they had penetrated far. While this recon- naissance was being driven, the Ashanti War broke out, although the party were
THE RAILWAY INVASION OF THE GOLD COAST 71
ignorant of the fact. Mr. Shclford plodded forward, cutting, hacking, and hewing his narrow way through the forbidding and now hostile country. Fortunately for him, he escaped the vengeance of the rebellious natives, who evidently had massed at
of the mines went forward with a rush. In one stroke the transportation charges were reduced from £40 to £5 per ton, and the effect was felt immediately. The heaviest machinery now could be brought up with ease and installed. Before many
THE ARRIVAL OF THE FIRST LOCOMOTIVE IN COOMASSIE.
Coomassie. The result was that when he at last gained Prempeh's capital he was surprised to find the English troops in pos- session. He himself was the first English- man to enter the stronghold from Sckondi. His northward dash from Tarkwa, spying out the lay of the country for the railway, had taken about three weeks. The survey thus obtained was compared with that run via Accra to Coomassie, and, being found preferable from all points of view, it received official acceptance.
The overthrow of the Ashanti king and the pacification of the country after its addition to the Gold Coast enabled the construction of the railway to be re- sumed, and in May, 1901, Tarkwa was linked to the coast. Then the development
months had elapsed the heart of the hinter- land was a throbbing hive of activity.
There was no pause in railway-building operations. The Sekondi-Tarkwa-Coomassie survey having met with approval, the advance to the former capital of Ashanti was commenced in June, 1901. Eighteen months later the railway had penetrated to Obuassi, 86 miles beyond Tarkwa, having advanced at the rate of 4f miles per month, which, bearing in mind the heavy clearing and earthworks which were necessary, constituted a striking performance. In September, 1903, the objective was reached — Coomassie was brought into railway com- munication with Sekondi on the coast.
So far as bridges are concerned, heavy works of this character were not found
RAILWAY WONDERS OF THE WORLD
The Bridges.
necessary. The most important, perhaps, is the Ancobra Bridge, on the branch line, 19 miles in length, which runs from Tarkvva to Prestea. This bridge has four spans — two approach each of 45 feet, one of 90 feet, and a central span of 180 feet respec- tively. The erection of the main big span was carried out on the overhang or canti- lever system, the spans on either side being used as anchorages. The bridge is of the half- through, or " trough " type, supported upon concrete piers 40 feet in height. The next largest bridge is that across the Huni River, the main span of which has a length of 150 feet. All the smaller bridges are of a permanent character, with con- crete piers and abutments, and steel plate girders.
The rolling stock is of the latest type.
The locomotives follow the British design
with American cow-catcher
and head-»ght- The most powerful engines are of the 4-8-0 class, and these handle the traffic between Sekondi and Coomassie. To pro- tect the European drivers from the sun and rain the roomy cab is fitted with a double roof. The coaches are of the end- corridor pattern, upholstered according to the class.
It comes as a surprise to the stranger to the Gold Coast, who is familiar with the railway travelling comforts of home, to find cars fitted with kitchens, sleeping- berths, baths, and other luxuries traversing a country which only a little more than a decade ago was " dark " in the fullest interpretation of the word. His astonish- ment is complete when he finds that he can assuage his thirst upon the " Coo- massie Limited " with a bottle of Bass for sixpence, or a whisky-and-soda for nine- pence ! Truly the advance of civilisation is rapid.
The metamorphosis of West Africa con- stitutes one of the most remarkable inci- dents in railway history. In few other
the Railway has
countries where maps were non-existent, where the rainfall averages as much in a month as during a year in Great Britain, where the forest was untrodden, and where ma- Done. laria reigned supreme, has so sudden and complete a change been wrought in such a short space of time. In 1897 Sekondi was a handful of straggling mud huts dotting the shore. To-day it is a busy terminal port with sidings, substantial administration buildings, a hospital, and other attributes to a busy growing centre. In August, 1898, the engineers commenced to carve their way through the forest, and although work was interrupted by scarcity of labour, a harassing climate, and the Ashanti War, the first 40 miles to Tarkwa were completed in May, 1901 — a matter of thirty-three months. The overthrow of King Prcmpeh and the resultant pacifica- tion of the country enabled construction to go forward more rapidly on the northern extension, Obuassi being reached in seven- teen months, while the last lap of 44 miles into Coomassie was finished in seven months — an average advance of 6'3 miles per month. On the Tarkwa-Obuassi sec- tion rail-laying reached 12 miles per month, which conveys some idea of the energy with which the work was prosecuted when untrammelled.
This achievement is all the more re- markable when the difficulties concerning the personnel are borne in mind. The changes in the staff were everlasting, owing to sickness. During the progress of the work no fewer than ten chief engineers were appointed in turn.
Does the line pay ? Well, whereas in 1905 the net receipts were £51,000, in 1911 the net earnings were £183,798. Such a result proves conclusively that the £1,857,237 sunk in the railway develop- ment of the Gold Coast is proving a highly profitable investment, which is certain to increase as the illimitable re- sources of the country are opened up.
THE HURLEY TRACK-LAYER AT WORK. This machine lays and spaces the sleepers on the ground and sets the rails.
The Labour- and Time-Saving Track-Layer and its Work
A WONDERFUL MACHINE FOR LAYING RAILWAYS ALONG GREAT DISTANCES
NE of the most interesting developments, from the mechanical point of view, has been the perfection of methods for laying the metals. So far as Great Britain is concerned there is no need to depart from the practice of laying sleepers and rails which has obtained since railways came into being. Mechanical systems never would pay here, because the day of big railway undertakings seems to have drawn
10 73
to a close. The mechanical track-layer, to prove its value, demands a clear run of several score miles ; then its force is demonstrated somewhat powerfully.
In order to obtain the most telling expressions of its utility one must visit Canada and the United States, where railway expansion upon a huge scale is in progress. Hand labour never could cope with this situation ; metals and sleepers are weighty to handle. So of necessity the mechanical system was evolved.
RAILWAY WONDERS OF THE WORLD
The track-layer is mistitled somewhat, according to Old World interpretations of railway building. It does not lay the track lock, stock, and barrel complete for service — it simply dumps the sleepers on the ground and places the rails upon them.
33-feet lengths of steel weighing maybe 90 Ib. and 100 Ib. per yard, is hard, slow work. At the same time it enables the glittering ribbon of steel to advance more rapidly through the country than is possible under manual methods ; the railhead is
Photograph by permission of the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway. THE ADVANCE OF THE TRACK-LAYER, SHOWING THE GRADE AHEAD.
The two are then temporarily gauged up and secured together. It is merely a skeleton -track, sufficient for the movement of constructional trains and material to the front. The track has to be completed by hand in the usual manner before it is fitted for ordinary service. Still, by laying the metals in this manner the saving in human muscle, physical exertion, and labour in the first instance is very appreciable, because throwing about heavy baulks of timber measuring 8 feet in length, by 8 inches wide and 6 inches deep, and
kept in closer touch with actual work upon the grade.
Although the track-layer may differ in many details of construction, the funda- mental design and principles of operation are common, except in one instance, which I shall describe later. It is a cumbrous, lumbering piece of machinery carried on a flat car. At its forward end is a gantry or gallows-like structure, from the base of which project two booms, one on each side, whence the rails are handled. The deck of the car carries the steam plant for
76
RAILWAY WONDERS OF THE WORLD
the supply of power to the machinery, while on an upper platform are stationed two men who carry out the delicate task of setting the rails in position. In a crow's nest, immediately beside these men, and commanding a complete uninterrupted view of the whole operations in front, sits the man in charge of the track-laying gang. Immediately behind the track-layer come
with spikes, which, in revolving, grip the under side of the sleeper and propel it forward. The baulks are hurled through the trough in a continuous stream, the supply to the forward gang being governed entirely by the rate of the feed from the trucks into the conveyor.
The operation is very simple. The con- structional engineer has left the grade
|
/L / 1 © J3 |
|
L. — Vertical shaft which allows truss to swing on curves.
CO CO COT
SLEEPER CAR SECTION.
I.— Sleepers rolled on to moving rails and carried forward to the machine.
THE HURLEY TRACK-LAYER
the trucks piled up with the steel rails, and an adequate supply of fish-plates. Then follows the engine, and lastly the deck cars stacked high with the sleepers. The locomotive thus is placed in the centre of the equipment. Extending along one side of the train, from end to end, is a big wooden trough, through which the sleepers are conveyed from the trucks to the grade beyond. This trough projects some 40 feet or more beyond the track-layer. Thus the sleepers are shot on the ground more than a full rail length ahead. The bottom of this trough is fitted with rollers armed
carried to formation level ; its surface is clean, level, and clear. Down the centre of this pathway runs a row of pegs corre- sponding to the location stakes of the surveyor. As these pegs coincide with the centre line between the rails, the fore- man casts off his distance on one side and sets his gauge line.
The track-layer lumbers up to the end of the completed track under the pushing effort of the locomotive, and then work commences. The track-laying gang is dis- tributed over the train and the grade in front. The convcvor rollers rattle and
THE LABOUR- AND TIME-SAVING TRACK-LAYER 77
clank ; the men on the first sleeper truck behind pitch the baulks into the trough as fast as they can. With an ear-splitting din the timbers are hurried forward, and are disgorged upon the grade ahead. As rapidly as they fall out of the trough they are prised, pulled, pushed, and tugged into position, spaced the requisite distance apart, while care is
perfunctorily carried out, everything being trued up hastily.
Directly a rail on each side has been laid the machine crawls forward. The extent of this intermittent advance varies accord- ing to whether the joints in the rails are in line or broken. In the first instance progress will be the length of a rail ; in the second case only about half that dis-
K. — 12 wheels, all drivers.
J.— Compression rollers which grip rails and draw them forward.
M. — Trip which lets in sleeper for each attachment on conveyor chain.
CO CO
(0 CO
RAIL CAR SECTION.
G.— Position of rail after being lowered on to roller.
SHOWN DIAGRAMMATICALLY.
seen that one end toes the gauge line at the side.
Meanwhile the men on the trucks laden with the rails temporarily attach a pair of fish-plates to one end of a 33-feet length of steel, which is caught up and whisked to the front. It is lowered steadily, the free end drops between the two fish-plates on the last rail laid, bolts are slipped through to connect up, the gauge is struck, and with a few deft swings of the heavy sledges the gangers drive a spike here and there to clinch the metal to the sleepers below. In the first instance the work is
tance. The noise is deafening. The screech of steam mingles with the rumbling and growling of the sleepers as they come bumping along the wooden conveyor trough. There is the ring of steel as the rails are swung out and lowered, and the clash of metal as the heavy sledges are swung to drive home the spikes and bolts. Above all may be heard the raucous shouts and orders of the man in the crow's nest, and the babble of the 120 odd men, probably of half a dozen nationalities, shouting with the force of megaphones to make them- selves heard.
RAILWAY WONDERS OF THE WORLD
'
Under favourable conditions the metals can be laid at an average rate of two miles per day. When the going has been particularly advantageous, and a full gang of expert men has been available, the railway has crept forward between four and five miles between sunrise and sunset. There is a friendly rivalry among the crews, and if a chance presents itself, they let them- selves go with infinite zest in the effort to create a day's record. But the track so laid is extremely crude — a skeleton line in the fullest sense of the word, and little better than that laid down by the constructional armies for the movement of their ballast wagons and material. When the track-layer has passed and the strip of white level grade has received its steel embellishment, the line looks as if it had been twisted and buckled by a seismic disturbance, or had writhed under extreme expansion set up by an abnormally hot summer's day.
Hard on the heels of the track-layer come the aligning and levelling gangs. They straighten the kinks in the ribbon of steel, correct all the sags by lifting and packing ballast under the sleepers, and complete the trueing and bolting up, as well as the spiking to every sleeper. Over this skeleton track, trains may move forward at slow speed — say up to six or eight miles an hour. As the rails are laid on the sub- grade, and ballasting is not carried out until later, very little effort is required to throw the track out of gauge. I recall one journey I made on the engine of a con- struction train shortly after the metals had been laid. Three times in as many miles the engine dropped between the metals owing to the spreading of the rails. But the construction train expects such interludes, and, in anticipation, carries a goodly supply of tackle aboard in the form of powerful jacks, whereby the engine is lifted back again without very much trouble or serious delay. Then the train is backed a few feet, and
the men on board fix up the road by bring- ing the rails into gauge so that the train may pass.
The foregoing type of track-layer has been that in general use for many years, and has given general satis- faction. From time to time An
. Unfortunate
the details are improved, lor inventor.
the purpose of facilitating the avowed task of the machine. One man who had completed such an improvement came to an unfortunate end. He was on the track-layer, giving instructions, when he slipped. Before he was able to recover himself he was on his back in the sleeper conveyor, was caught by the spikes on the rollers, and was ground to death by the ever-moving stream of timbers before he could be extricated.
Recently a distinct improvement has been effected upon the foregoing type of machine. The latter does not lay the track, it merely delivers the material for manual power to set in position. Still, when it is remembered that, upon a modern railway of standard gauge, the aggregate of metal and wood which has to be handled represents a matter of 350 tons per mile, it will be acknowledged that it constitutes a very helpful auxiliary.
The latest machine, known as the Hurley Track-layer, better justifies its name, inas- much as it automatically lays the sleepers and rails in posi- _ e k_| ey tion on the ground. Manual effort is reduced to the minimum. The whole working principle of the Hurley apparatus differs from that of the ordinary appliance. Instead of moving forward intermittently a matter of 16 feet or so at a time, it travels constantly — very slowly, it is true — as the drive is transmitted to the wheels through reducing gear, the speed being designed so as to ensure continuity of track-laying and progress simultaneously. A locomotive for pushing purposes is not required — the plant is self-contained, and a distinct working unit.
THE LABOUR- AND TIME-SAVING TRACK-LAYER
79
The travelling speed varies from 12 to 40 The train is completed with the cars laden
feet per minute, far slower than a loco- with rails. Instead of a conveyor trough,
motive could move, and at this speed it two rollers are laid on each side, and at
can haul a train, ranging up to thirty the respective ends, of each car. laden cars, according to the grade. The modus operandi is very simple.
Photograph by permission of the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway.
THE "LIFTING" GANG TRUE-ING, LIFTING AND LEVELLING RAILS AND COMPLETING SPIKING
TO SLEEPERS.
The mechanical car carries a pair of reversible stationary engines which suffice to actuate the machinery and to drive the train. From this car projects a huge truss, which overhangs the grade, whereby the sleepers and rails are delivered to the ground. Immediately behind the engine car is the fuel and water supply truck. This can be detached from the track-layer and hauled back to the loading point to be replenished at the end of the day's work. Then follow the trucks loaded with the sleepers, which are stacked transversely.
Work commences at the first car of rails behind the track-layer, the rails being stacked in the form of a pyramid on the flat truck. This latter is fitted with a portable frame, or gantry, the legs of which drop into pockets in the frame of the vehicle. This frame carries an overhead friction hoist. The rails are lifted one by one from the stack and lowered on to the rollers, where they are connected together by slipping a couple of bolts through the connecting fish-plates. The result is that the rails move forward in a continuous
8o
RAILWAY WONDERS OF THE WORLD
length to the track-layer, travelling over the rollers at the side. When the first truck has been exhausted of rails, the gantry is lifted out of its pockets and transferred to the succeeding vehicle, and so on until the whole of the rails have been sent forward.
As the rails move along the rollers they pass over the trucks laden with the sleepers, but underneath the two sides of the stack, and in such a way as to be clear of the latter. On each of these trucks are piled from 375 to 500 baulks, according to the length of the vehicle. As the rails travel forward, men stationed on the wagons roll the sleepers on to them, so that the rails really become a conveyor. Other members of the crew, standing on side planks, space the sleepers upon the moving track the same intervals apart as they will occupy when laid on the ground. Thus one sees a length of in- verted track moving constantly towards the front of the train.
When the moving rails with their sleepers
reach the engine car, the two become
separated, the rails passing
ow e between friction rollers, which
Sleepers are Placed. supply the forward moving
effort to the rails, while the sleepers are sent upwards, still the allotted distance apart, over the top of the machine, along the upper side of the truss, and are delivered on to the ground by means of a conveyor. As the track-layer is moving forward constantly, and owing to the truss overhanging the grade ahead, the sleepers are tumbled exactly into their requisite position, and the correct distance apart upon the ground. All that has to be done is to see that they toe the gauge line, men armed with tongs effecting this adjustment without undue effort. As the truss gives a clearance of 8 feet clear above the road- bed, there is ample space for the men to work beneath.
The rails, after parting company with their sleepers, and being drawn through
the friction rollers, are detached. The fish-plate bolt is withdrawn from one end, while the other is loosened,
so that the two fish-plates How, l!\e Rails
are Laid.
are left on the rear end of each rail. This task completed, the rail is drawn forward by means of speed rollers, and passes along the lower edge of the truss to a point about 20 feet ahead of the front of the car. Here it is grabbed by specially fashioned tongs, and lowered until the rear end drags along the rail previously laid. It is held suspended until it has come within some 12 inches of the end of the rail on the ground. A man then swings the suspended rail forward until the attached fish-plates drop over the end of the previous rail, the pressing tendency of the swinging length of metal being sufficient to keep the two ends together until a clamp, which holds both fish-plates and rails together, is applied, when the tongs are released. A bolt is slipped in to join the new to the previous rail, the clamp is released, the forward end of the rail is lowered upon the sleepers, while bolting-up and spiking here and there are accomplished during the interval the track-layer is moving forward 20 feet. Thus the machine moves on to the new length of metal without a pause.
The machine section of the train is a weighty mass, turning the scale at some 65 tons, but this weight is distributed over a wheel-base of some 50 feet. As the Hurley track-layer completes the whole operation without the assistance of a locomotive, a saving from £5 to £8 per day under this heading alone is effected, while as a smaller crew is sufficient to handle the complete equipment than in the case of the ordinary type of track-layer, the machine is both money- and labour- saving.
Some remarkable achievements have been placed on record with this machine. A force of 42 men can lay 2 miles of track a day, while a small squad of 18 hands
THE LABOUR- AND TIME-SAVING TRACK-LAYER 81
can complete Ij miles in the same time. With an expert full crew, 1,800 feet of metals have been laid in an hour. Weather conditions do not affect the working speed, and even swampy ground can be crossed in safety, and without inflicting the slightest damage upon the road-bed, owing to the long wheel-base and distribution of weight. In Wisconsin 3,000 feet of track were laid in a couple of hours, notwithstanding the fact that during the greater part of this time a blinding snowstorm was raging.
The apparatus is just as effective upon curves as upon stretches of tangent track. The overhanging truss is able to swing to the curvature, owing to the construction of its front end, and the sleepers are deposited to the centre line upon the ground under all conditions. From the money- saving point of view its value is forcibly
emphasised, judging from results achieved in building the Kansas City, Mexico and Orient Railway, where the engineer-in- chief estimates that the machine has saved him over £40 per mile, as compared with other methods of track-laying.
Subsequent to the passing of the track- layer the road has to be overhauled from time to time — ballasted, lifted — so as to bring it into the pink of condition for fast and heavy traffic. If the actual cost of construction is compared with the manual system practised in Great Britain and Europe generally, it is doubtful whether it shows any advantage, but it certainly offers a means of getting the metals down more quickly, so as to provide an improved and accelerated means of transporting material, and men for grading, to the front.
•
11
LAYING THE METALS AT THE RATE OF FIVE MILES A DAY. The track-layer at work on the Chicago, Milwaukee and Puget Sound Railway.
THE TWO TYPES OF BOILERS READY FOR THE TEST AT THE TRIAL GROUNDS.
A Safety Locomotive Boiler
BOILER-BURSTS ARE COMPARATIVELY COMMON IN AMERICA. HERE IS DESCRIBED AN INTERESTING TEST OF THE EFFICIENCY OF A NEW
FORM OF BOILER
ORTUNATELY for railway travellers and others in Great Britain, the explosion of the boiler of a railway engine is a very rare occurrence, owing to the skill and care devoted to construction and maintenance, as well as to the thoughtful management of those responsible for its operation. But the United States present a very vivid contrast in this respect. There, on the average, a railway engine blows up once a week, and this class of calamity accounts for a long list of killed and maimed, as well as damage to the tune of several hundreds of thousands of pounds to property per annum.
Investigation invariably tends to attribute these disasters to one of two causes — a defect in manufacture, or gross mismanage- ment. Of course, in a few instances, even the most searching examination fails to
offer a reason for the accident, but such mysteries are few and far between. Taken on the whole it is the penalty of care- lessness which has to be feared the most, and in the direction of con- troverting this danger little has been possible of accomplishment by the rail- way companies, seeing that it turns upon the human factor.
The ordinary type of locomotive boiler is safe and reliable so long as it is handled with due care and thoughtfulness. Other- wise disaster swift and sudden is encount- ered. If the level of the water in the boiler is permitted to fall to such an extent that the roof or " crown " of the fire-box becomes uncovered, an explosion is in- evitable. The fierce heat of the fire raises the temperature of the uncovered metal to such a degree that it loses its strength, cannot withstand the pressure of the steam within, and is driven inwards.
A SAFETY LOCOMOTIVE BOILER
A certain amount of resistance to this internal pressure of the steam is provided by securing the crown sheet of the fire-box to the outer shell of the boiler by means of radial stay-bolts. So long as the water level is kept above the danger limit this security is adequate and the fire-box is held to its shape against the steam pressure. On the other hand, if through negligence or by oversight the crown of the fire-box is exposed to the fire, the stay-bolts become impotent, and are torn through the sheet, which then col- lapses.
Two American engineers, Messrs. Jacobs
and Shupert, in the locomotive shops of
the Atchison, Topeka and
The Jacobs- s t Fe Railway Company, Shupert J J'
Boiler. realising this weak feature
of the ordinary boiler, en- deavoured to design a type which would hold up against a low water level. After experimenting for several years they suc- ceeded in their quest, and produced a boiler which is stronger and safer than those in general use. It was subjected to several tests and trials upon the railway, and, being found successful, has become widely adopted throughout the United States.
This Jacobs-Shupert boiler is built up in sections. The radial stay-bolts which hold the ordinary fire-box to shape are dispensed with entirely. Instead, there are a number of deep flanges, extending from the outer shell of the boiler to the inner shell of the fire-box. The shell of the latter is built up of a number of channel sections of arch shape, and these are riveted to the inside edges of the stay flanges. The adoption of the section secures exceedingly strong construction. Moreover, as the section is strongly riveted to the inner edges of the flanges, the crown sheet is able to withstand an enormous amount of pressure, which becomes dis- tributed over a very great area before it can be wrenched free and driven in.
The inventors embarked upon a series of elaborate experiments to discover the behaviour of their boiler
under low water conditions. Interesting ... Experiments.
Adjoining their Coatesville
works in Pennsylvania an elaborate testing plant was set up in a field. The boilers were rigged up, charged with water, and then fired, the water being permitted to fall lower and lower until the crown of the fire-box was well exposed. Inasmuch as the boiler could not be stoked by a fireman in the usual manner, owing to the possibility of a blow-up, oil-fuel was used, being con- trolled from a safe distant point. In order to follow the falling level of the water as represented by the gauge, as well as to secure continuous readings of the steam pressure indicated upon its gauge, a bomb- proof shelter comprising a boiler laid on its side, and backed with baulks and earth, was erected some distance away for the accommodation of the observers. The read- ings were taken from this point by the aid of a telescope mounted on the roof of the bomb-proof shelter. Thus it was possible to follow the tests closely in perfect safety.
The numerous experiments made in this way fully confirmed the statements ad- vanced by the inventors concerning the properties of fnndependent their boiler, and the reduced Test. liability, if not complete im- munity, from accident ensured by the same when the fireman, through oversight or carelessness, permitted the water to fall somewhat low.
Finally, in order to secure an indepen- dent expert opinion, as well as comparative results, an interesting trial was carried out by Dr. W. F. M. Goss, Dean of the College of Engineering of the University of Illinois, who is probably the greatest authority upon this subject in America.
In carrying out this test it was not only decided to submit the Jacobs-Shupert boiler to an unprecedented gruelling, but also to ascertain how far it was proof
84
RAILWAY WONDERS OF THE WORLD
against explosion arising from low water gauge, so mounted as to be seen readily
conditions. Comparative results also were through the telescope.
to be made with a view to ascertaining Each boiler was then connected to the
what the ordinary type of boiler could feed water supply and set going until it
withstand in this connection, and also to determine whether, as had been main-
reached the conditions which would prevail in actual express service. This was estim-
'
EXTERIOR VIEW OF BOILER. WITH JACOBS-SHUPERT FIRE-BOX. IMMEDIATELY AFTER LOW
WATER TESTS.
Note blistering of paint on outside of fire-box, due to intense heat.
tained, a low water level was a positive cause of explosion.
For this purpose two full-sized locomotive boilers, such as are used for heavy express service, the one'a Jacobs-Shupert and the other of the ordinary radial type, were set up in the experimental field. They were placed 50 feet apart, and the observer took up his position in the bomb-proof shelter placed 200 feet away. The fire-box end of each boiler faced the observer, and each carried a graduated water gauge and steam
ated to be equal to 1,400 horse-power, which would be sufficient to haul a fully loaded train at 60 miles an hour over a level road. At this juncture the feed water was cut off, but nothing else was touched.
The Jacobs-Shupert boiler was tried first. The observers followed the falling water for 55 minutes, by which time, according to the reading of the gauge, it had descended 25| inches below the crown sheet. It may have fallen to a lower level, but this was the limit of the gauge glass. During the
m
BLOWING UP.
The ordinary boiler photographed at the instant the crown sheet collapsed. The Jacobs-Shupert boiler which passed the test successfully is alongside.
86
RAILWAY WONDERS OF THE WORLD
first twenty-seven minutes the steam gauge indicated a pressure ranging between 215 and 225 pounds. At the lapse of this period the pressure gradually decreased until only one of 50 pounds was indicated. The test was discontinued after 55 minutes, be- cause the small amount of water remaining in the boiler did not evaporate fast enough to ensure the draught necessary to maintain the fire. No sign of any failure was observed, and when the boiler was examined there was adequate external evidence of the severity of the ordeal through which it had passed. The paint on the outside of the fire-box was blistered, and a good deal had peeled off. It was evident that the crown sheet of the fire-box must have been brought to a red-hot condition under the fierce heat of the fire, but there was not the slightest sign that it had been weakened in any way by this extreme temperature, and it was apparently as fit for service, if required, as before the test
The second boiler, of the radial stay type, was subjected to a test precisely similar to the foregoing in every respect,
the feed water being cut off at an identical point. The steam gauge indicated a pres- sure varying from 200 to 233 pounds, anc after it had been kept going for 23 minutes the water had fallen to a level 14 J inches below the crown sheet.
Then the crown sheet and the stays holding it in position had become heatec to such a degree that they were wrenchec apart, and the steam, at 228 pounds pressure, drove in the sheet. The stean rushed into the fire-box and there was a terrific explosion. Although the boilei weighed 40 tons, it was lifted off its seating the fire-box was disrupted and fragments were blown in all directions. When exam- ined, the boiler was found to be damaged so extensively as to require reconstruction
This interesting test not only provec the efficiency of the salient features of th( Jacobs-Shupert boiler, but also affordec convincing evidence that low water, wit! the overheating of the crown sheet, was £ contingency beset with dire consequences and probably is a common cause for i railway engine blowing up.
GENERAL VIEW OF THE TESTING GROUND.
Showing the Jacobs-Shupert boiler in position, shelter for observers, and display board whereon spectators at a distance could follow the variations in the water levels and
steam pressures during the trials.
THE LARGEST INDIVIDUAL RAILWAY YARD IN THE WORLD. A part of the 120 miles of sidings belonging to the C.P.R. at Winnipeg.
The Canadian Pacific Railway-I
THE STORY OF THE GREAT TRANSCONTINENTAL LINE WHICH IN PARTS COST
£140,000 PER MILE
ALF a century ago the vast stretch of territory forming British North America was a heterogeneous collection of pro- vinces, each of which virtually was a little kingdom in itself. Consequently there was an ab- solute lack of cohesive working : Canada presented a striking picture of a country divided against itself. And this was by no means the worst feature of the situation. On the Pacific seaboard was a flourishing colony, British Columbia, which not only was cut off from the other prosperous corners of Canada, but was also isolated from the Mother Country. In those days a journey to Vancouver was not to be undertaken lightly. If approached by water from England it involved a journey half- way round the world, and circuitous at that, since the vessel had to turn the southern extremity of the American Con- tinent. On the other hand, the overland
journey was just as forbidding, and quite as lengthy, because one had to toil afoot from the head of the Great Lakes over the prairies and across towering mountain ranges before the seaboard was gained.
British Columbia was handicapped by this isolation, so when a scheme was adumbrated to federate the various pro- vinces the Pacific colony resolved to profit from co-operation. It would enter the confederation on one condition only — that it was brought into touch with Eastern Canada and the Atlantic seaboard by a railway.
The advocates of federation were stag- gered by this ultimatum. Why, west of the Great Lakes stretched a wilderness to the feet of the Rocky Mountains, and then as unkempt and as wild a stretch of rugged country to the Western Sea as could be conceived ! The whole country was in the melting-pot, and although superhuman efforts were being made to weave the
88
RAILWAY WONDERS OF THE WORLD
tangled fabric together, here was one of