1Re\>* Request of <L Scaling, D, to tbe Xibrarg of tbe of Toronto 1901 • • \s BEQUEST OF REV. CANON SCADDING, D. D. TORONTO, 1901. THE ILLUSTRATED COMPANION TO THE Hatm IMctionarg, antr CSmfc Hexicon. LONHON : SPOTTISWOOUE and SHAW, New-btreot-Square. THE ILLUSTRATED COMPANION iiatin Bfctfonarp, antJ (Smfc FORMING A GLOSSARY OF ALL THE WORDS REPRESENTING VISIBLE OBJECTS CONNECTED WITH THE ARTS, MANUFACTURES, AND EVERY-DAY LIFE OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS, WITH REPRESENTATIONS OF NEARLY TWO THOUSAND OBJECTS FROM THE ANTIQUE. ANTHONY RICH, JUN. B.A LATE OF CAIUS COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE. 1 Segnius irritant animos demissa per aurem, Quam quae sunt oculis subjecta fidelibus." LONDON: LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS, PATERNOSTER-ROW. 1849. PREFACE. A vEBT^considerable portion of the materials comprised in the present volume, were collected, for my own instruction and amusement, during a protracted residence of seven years in the central and southern parts *bf Italy. To a person who arrives there fresh from the ordi- nary studies of a public school and college, with the advantage of pos- sessing a competent skill in the practice of drawing, the collections of antiquities naturally become a paramount source of attraction, and suggest various matters for reflection, independent of the influence they possess as beautiful productions of art. He will perceive many par- ticulars which escape the general observer, but tending to elucidate numerous subjects connected with his previous studies, and explaining to him what had hitherto been involved in complete mystery, or only seen at a distance through the dim, and often fallacious, haze of a fanciful imagination. Observing, for instance, the costume represented in painting and sculpture, and entering upon an examination of its details, he detects a great number of different articles, clearly distinct in form, character, and method of arrangement, some of which readily explain themselves, and suggest at once their classic names, previously, however, only known by rote. Others again present themselves which he feels a difficulty in accounting for, — how they were called, what was their special use, what constituted the precise points of difference between them and others of nearly similar appearance, and what were the distinctive classic terms by which each was discriminated. It must be apparent, as these differences exist in the objects themselves, that they would be distinguished in the language of the people who used them ; or, if the verbal differences were already known, it would be natural to expect that an exemplification, in proof of the fact, would be found amongst the artistic representations of them. When these are discovered, a sudden light would flash upon the mind, dispelling doubts, creating conviction, and enabling the observer to say with self-satisfaction, — this was called by such a name, that was em- ployed in such a manner, now I see the meaning of such a passage, allusion, or expression. It was from the frequent experience of such impressions that the idea suggested itself to me of making a drawing or a note of every thing which fell under my observation, that would help to Vi PREFACE. illustrate the language or manners of the classic ages. I read their authors on the spot, and consulted the numerous antiquarian treatises devoted to the explanation of such matters, by which means my knowledge imperceptibly increased in accuracy and amount, till the contents of my note-book and portfolio acquired something like the dimensions of the present volume, and contained at that time (for I am referring to a period long since passed) a quantity of information, which would then have been entirely new to English literature. Latterly, however, there has been a general disposition amongst us to recur back and investigate the customs of by-gone ages, whether of our own or other nations ; and several German, as well as English, scholars, who have visited or resided in Italy, have directed their researches more especially to classical anti- quities. But the greater portion of their works is devoted to investiga- tions respecting the political institutions of the ancients, comparatively little attention being bestowed upon social manners and every-day life, which it is especially the aim of these pages to describe and depict ; and no attempt has yet been made to illustrate systematically, and word by word, the language of ancient literature by the works of ancient art. Hence I have been induced to venture upon the experiment of putting my fragments together, with the hope of being able to fill up, in a useful and agreeable manner, the space left void, or but cursorily sketched over in the pages of larger and more learned productions. From what has been said, the nature of the work may be readily con- ceived. In the first place, to define the true meaning of all the terms, tech- nical or otherwise, expressive of any particular object, artificial produc- tion, manual operation, &c., which can be submitted to ocular inspection. Secondly, to impart a distinct notion of that meaning, by exhibiting a virtual representation of the thing itself, faithfully copied from some classic original, thus presenting the same forms as the ancients were accustomed to look upon, and suggestive of the same ideas as they them- selves conceived. And lastly, to furnish a general knowledge of the social customs, and every-day life, of the Romans and Greeks, in the shape of a vocabulary, containing all the written terms which have reference to such matters ; illustrated by a series of pictures, after their own designs, of the dress they wore, the houses they lived in, the utensils they used, or the pursuits they followed, by which we may be said to acquire a sort of personal acquaintance with the people themselves, and to see them, as it were, in a glass, under the genuine characters, and familiar aspects, which they presented to one another. For this purpose an Index is added at the end of the volume, forming a systematic table of contents to the whole, and containing separate lists of all the words relating to any given subject classed under distinct heads, so that by rrmg m the consecutive order there set out to the explanations given der each, all that relates to any particular topic will be concentrated PREFACE. Vll under one view, as if written in a single article, thus affording a compre- hensive insight into the whole matter, as well as a knowledge of the various classical terms connected with it, and the distinctions or affinities between such of them as are allied in sense, though not actually syno- nymous. The Latin language, in preference to the Greek, is taken as a basis, for obvious reasons; being more generally known, it affords a more general scope and interest to the work, But the Greek synonymes, when sufficiently identical, are inserted in a bracket by the side of the leading words, and any special difference between the Greek and Roman usages is pointed out in the text ; and, an Alphabetical Index of the Greek words, with their Latin synonymes, is subjoined, which will show the corresponding usages of the two languages in juxtaposition, and afford the means of referring to the Greek words as readily as if they had been inserted alphabetically in the body of the volume. At the same time it is not professed, nor was it ever intended, to make so complete an ana- lysis of the Greek language as of the Latin ; nor are the Greek authorities regularly cited except in particular cases, where their assistance was necessary ; but as nothing really essential is omitted, those who have mastered what is here contained, will, I apprehend, find themselves able to supply all that is needful out of the knowledge already acquired. In selecting written authorities, the plan pursued has always been to prefer, where suitable, the same passages as those usually quoted in the dictionaries; and to place them immediately after the assump- tion they are intended to support, inserted in brackets, and with- out interrupting the text, in order that the book might accommodate itself to the use of all who feel an interest in the subjects it treats of, not as classical students only, but as inquirers after popular knowledge. As a general rule, too, when a word occurs incidentally in any author belonging to the flourishing age of literature, but the precise character of the object expressed by it is ascertained from descriptions or inferences found in writings of a much later period, both passages are referred to ; the one to establish the genuine and early usage of the term, the other to decide the proper interpretation belonging to it. But where words are of such common occurrence, and their meanings so generally known and admitted as not to require proof, it has been thought sufficient merely to mention the names of some of the best authors where they are found, without specifying any particular passages. It is often impossible to ascertain the exact sense of many terms, and the precise character of the objects designated by them, without having recourse to the details and evidence afforded by authors of the inferior periods of classic literature. Hence the grammarians, scholiasts, and inscriptions are frequently appealed to ; not as tests of good Latinity, nor of correct etymology, nor, indeed, as unerring guides, but as an available viii PREFACE. resource of certain value, where their testimony is confirmed by other evidence, especially that afforded by artistic representations; for if nothing but written proofs from the best periods of literature are to be admitted as valid, the very absence of these will often produce im- pressions just as erroneous respecting the customs of antiquity, as the opposite fault of accepting every thing which is written, without sub- mitting it to the ordeal of a strict and impartial investigation. To cite an example from one of many others : Beckmann, in most respects an extremely estimable authority, gives it as his opinion, in the History of Inventions, that presses for cloth were not invented until the tenth century ; because, as he states, he had not met with any passage in which such machines were mentioned. But when the fulling establish- ment was excavated at Pompeii, (which city was overwhelmed by the eruption of A. D. 79), the representation of a cloth-press, exactly similar in construction to those now in use, was discovered amongst other pictures exhibiting different processes of the trade, upon a pilaster of the building; and Ammianus Marcellinus, though a late writer as regards Latinity, yet considerably anterior to the period fixed by Beck- mann, for he lived in the fourth century, distinctly gives the name pressorium to a contrivance of the kind in question. At the same time, it is not to be denied that due caution, and a fitting degree of critical scepticism, ought to be exerted upon all occasions, that one may not be induced to give out what is only doubtful as a certainty, or to invest mere fancies with the air of established truths. With this conviction I have felt it a paramount duty to trace regularly all the steps for the con- clusions arrived at ; citing impartially the reasons and authorities ; never attempting to speak positively, unless the grounds appeared to warrant it ; always noting the points which admitted of doubt ; and in cases where the balance of authority seemed undecided, and the opinions of the learned not agreed, I have faithfully produced both sides of the argument, and the evidence in support of each. It is scarcely necessary to enlarge upon the advantage of using the products of art as a means of interpreting a written language. A de- scription in words, when sufficiently clear and circumstantial, may convey all that is wished for ; and yet the impression will become more decided by inspection of a virtual representation of the thing itself. Nor is the authority justly due to the one, more important than that which ought to be allowed to the other. What is written with the pen is neither clearer, truer, nor more self-convincing than what is written with the pencil or the chisel. On the contrary, the latter will often have the advantage. But when the two are brought to bear upon each other, as here, reflecting mutual lights, supplying alternate deficiencies, and sup- porting each other by the interchange of corresponding evidence, it is then that the pictorial description becomes truly valuable as the best PREFACE. ix possible means for producing accurate perceptions, and elucidating points of difficulty by a process which gains conviction at once. Take, for example, the expressions hasta amentata and hasta ansata, which are met with as descriptive of some peculiar kind of spears ; and both of which are set down as synonymous terms in the dictionaries, although the elementary notions contained in the respective adjectives are entirely distinct. — the substantive amentum implying something in the nature of a straight thong ; the other, ansa, something bent in the form of a loop or handle. Consequently, the language itself indicates that the two objects are not identical ; but the distinction could not have been posi- tively established, and probably might never have been ascertained, but for the discovery of two ancient designs, — the one upon a Greek vase, which exhibits a spear with a straight thong (amentuni) attached to the shaft, as shown by the wood-cut, p. 25 ; — the other, on the walls of a tomb at Paestum, which exhibits a spear with a semicircular or looped handle (ansa) affixed to its shaft, through which the hand is inserted, as shown by the wood-cut, p. 38. Again, to mark the affinities between allied terms and the objects they represent, in both languages, but which, without a knowledge of the ancient forms possessed by those objects, would be liable to receive an erroneous, or at least imperfect, inter- pretation; take the Latin words, ancon, ansa, ancile, anquina, and the Greek, O^K&V, cty/cuAr?, ajKoivr]. All these contain the same elementary notion, that of a bend or hollow, such as is produced by the elbow-joint ; and it will be perceived by referring to the different objects represented under each of those words, that this peculiar property constitutes a leading feature in all of them, however varied in other respects their general forms and uses may be. In the language of poetry, more especially, which frequently receives its charm from some illustrative epithet suggested by the productions of art, it is obvious that the par- ticular beauty of many expressions will be lost or imperfectly appre- ciated, unless we too possess a just knowledge of the forms which the poet had in his mind, when he penned the passage. With respect to the illustrations, which form the distinguishing feature of the book, the main conditions required are, that they shall be derived from authentic originals, executed with fidelity, and sufficiently distinct in detail to exhibit without confusion the peculiar points which they are intended to exemplify. With regard to the authenticity of the illustrations, I may state that there are few of which I have not myself personally inspected the originals. But in every case where a drawing has been copied at second hand, that is, from an old book or engraving, or whenever there has appeared to be a possibility that the copy from which it is taken might have been incorrectly executed, or made up in any way ; whenever, in short, I had not the means within my own know- X PREFACE. ledge of vouching for its truthfulness, I have quoted the work from which my illustration is taken, so as to afford at least a responsible authority for the design. In other cases I have thought it sufficient merely to men- tion the nature of the production which furnished an original for each illustration, whether a painting, statue, engraved gem, &c. ; as it has been a constant object throughout to keep the volume within the smallest possible limits consistent with a due execution of the task undertaken. Of the whole number of wood-cuts, representing nearly two thousand different objects, only fifty are selected from other than Greek or Roman originals. One-half of these are drawn from the antiquities of Egypt, and are produced without hesitation because they establish the familiar use of certain articles long before the historical commencement of authen- tic history in Europe ; but, as we know how much the Greeks borrowed from Egypt, and the intercourse which took place between the Romans and that people, they may be safely appealed to as inventions handed down to the classic ages from a more remote period. Twelve are from originals still met with in actual use, chiefly in Asia, Greece, or Italy, — countries all of which have retained much of their primitive manners, and many of the identical forms employed by their early ancestors almost with- out variation. Three are of Chinese original ; inserted because they serve to explain certain terms not otherwise easily intelligible, nor correctly understood. But it may be remarked that many customs and articles now peculiar to that primitive people, as seen in the drawings made by travellers, and by collections exhibited in this country, bear a marked resemblance to the practice and forms in use amongst the classic inhabitants of Greece and Italy ; while the fact that real porcelain bottles with Chinese letters upon them have been found in several of the oldest tombs in Egypt, testifies that an early intercourse must have existed, in some shape or other, between those countries. Nine only of the engravings are not copied from any actual original, but are composed in accordance with written texts, for the purpose of giving a clear and definite notion of certain terms more readily explained by a diagram than by a description — a kind of knowledge which it is one of the prin- cipal objects of these pages to supply ; but, to prevent misapprehension, the circumstance of their being compositions is mentioned, together with the name of the scholar or editor who designed them. As regards fidelity of execution, an essential requisite in matters of this nature, no pains have been spared to attain the end. Many of the drawings were made upon the wood from designs or tracings executed by myself; all have been corrected on the block by the draughtsman under my directions, or by my own hand, when necessary ; and by the engraver, after cutting, from proofs retouched by myself, or under my orders. As regards precision and clearness of detail, some allowance must PREFACE. Xi be made in consideration of the very reduced size of the drawings, which in a work intended for utility not luxury, and so copiously illustrated as the present, becomes a law of necessity. Small, however, as they are, if the reader will only take the trouble of examining closely the particulars pointed out by the text to his attention, he will find that they seldom fail in telling their own tale — if not at the first casual glance, at all events after a little practice, and when his mind has become fami- liarised with the precise points and distinctions intended to be conveyed. But, wherever it has struck me that any indistinctness prevailed, either in conse'quence of want of precision in the drawing, or confusion from the crowding of unnecessary lines, I have cited some other instance where a larger or more perfect representation of the object is engraved, and which would show it more distinctly. In selecting illustrations, it has been my constant aim to produce such as are least common or hacknied, rather than those which may be seen, or are usually referred to, in other works which touch upon similar sub- jects ; for by this means the aggregate amount of pictorial authorities forming a common stock of available reference, is both varied and increased. But in cases where only a single specimen is known to exist, there is no alternative but to reproduce it ; or where, amongst several, one is so much more complete and definite in details, that it furnishes a better and more satisfactory illustration than any of the rest, like what is termed a locus classicus in literature, I have felt it right to insert that one, since every design is used as a practical commentary upon the meaning of words, addressed to the mind through the eyesight, and not as a pretty picture for the mere embellishment of a printed page. It only remains to explain the marks of accentuation inserted for the purpose of distinguishing the correct pronunciation of the Latin words for those who might require such assistance, though it must be acknow- ledged that every attempt of the kind will be liable to some objection or other. In the commencement I placed a mark after an open vowel, or after the consonant which follows a close one, according to our ordi- nary manner of pronunciation. But it subsequently occurred to me that the prosody might be indicated, as well as the pronunciation at the same time, by always placing the mark after a long vowel, as li'niger, li'nea, lori'ca, and after the consonant which follows a short one, as lan'ius, lit'uus, litficen ; which method has been systematically adopted throughout the latter half of the volume. December, 1848. COMPANION THE LATIN DICTIONARY, AB AC'ULUS (&<?a/«Wos). A small tile or die of glass, or a composition in imitation of stone, stained of various colours, and used for inlaying pat- terns in mosaic pavements. (Plin. H. N. xxxvi. 67. Moschusap. Athen. v. 41.) The illustration represents part of the ancient mosaic pavement in the church of & Croce in Gerusalemme, at Rome. AB'ACUS(£g<). In its general signification, a rectangular slab of stone, marble, earthenware, &c. ; whence it is applied in a more special sense to various other objects, which possess the characteristic form of a level tablet. 1. A tablet employed in making arithmetical calculations, on the plan IllUlil of reckoning by decads ; similar to that still in use amongst the Chinese (Davis, China, chap. 19.), and com- monly called the Pythagorean multi- plication table. The illustration re- presents an original first published by Velser. (Histor. Augustan. ) It is divided into compartments by parallel channels cut through it, into each of which is inserted a certain number of pins with a button at each end, in order that they might be moved up and down the channels without falling out. The numbers represented by the pins in each channel are marked on it ; the longer ones at the bottom are for units ; the shorter, at the top, for decimals. A tray covered with sand was like- wise employed for the same purpose, the lines being drawn out in a similar manner in the sand, and pebbles used, instead of pins, for making the calcu- lations (Pers. Sat. i. 131.); this was still designated by the same name, as was also the tray of the same kind which geometricians used for describ- ing their diagrams. Apul. Apol. p. 429. Varior. 2. A play-board, divided in like manner into com- partments, for one of the ancient games of chance and skill ; probably the one nearest al- lied to our " back- gammon ," the Indus duodecim scripto- rum, or the game of the twelve lines. Caryst. ap. Athen. x. 46. The illustration is copied from an ABACUS. original of marble belonging to the Christian era, which was excavated in a vineyard at Rome. It will be ob- served that it is divided, like our back-gammon boards, into four sepa- rate tables by the cross lines at each side ; and each side into twelve com- partments by the same number of lines, the duodecim scripta. The inequality of the lines upon which the pieces moved, and of the intervals between them, arose from the necessity of leav- ing room for a Greek inscription, which, in the original, runs down the centre, but has been omitted for con- venience in the wood-cut ; the mean- ing of it, according to the translation of Salmasius, is as follows : — " In Slaying thus at the throws of the dice, esus Christ gives victory and assist- ance to those who write his name and play with dice." That the board here figured was actually used in a mixed game of chance and skill, such as our back- gammon, is proved by the lines upon its surface, forming the points upon which the counters moved, and the inscription which implies that the moves were first determined by a chance throw of the dice ; and that the name abacus was most appro- priately given to the board used at such a game, is testified by the nature of its surface divided into parallel lines, so closely resembling in appear- ance the counting-board, as well as the circumstance that it was, in fact, a table upon which numbers were reckoned, — the numbers cast up on the dice being added together to de- cide the move. See the Greek Epi- gram, quoted by Dr. Hyde, and I Christie (Ancient Greek Games, p. 42.), j in which a game of this description ] is described in detail. 3. Also the play -board used in I another ancient game of skill, the Indus latrunculorum, — having a closer resemblance to our chess and draught boards. (Macrob. Sat. i. 5.) Although games of this description were of very great antiquity, and are represented both by the Egyptian and Greek artists, yet the precise manner in which the surface of the board was divided has not been ascertained, because it is always expressed in profile, which only shows the men but not the face of the board. See LATRUNCULI, TA- BULA LATRUNCULARIA. 4. A " side-board " for setting out the plate, drinking vessels, and table utensils in the tricJinium, or dining room. (Cic. Verr. iv. 16. Juv. iii. 204. Plin. H. N. xxxvii. 6.) The illustra- tion, copied from a fictile lamp, shows one of these sideboards with the plate set out upon it. It consists of two slabs, the lower one supported upon two feet, and the upper by a bracket leg, which rests upon the one below. The simplest kinds were made of marble, the more costly of bronze ; and the surface was sometimes perfo- rated into holes, in order to receive such vessels as were made with sharp or narrow bottoms, and, consequently, not adapted to stand alone. This ap- pears the most natural interpretation of the multiplices cavernce (Sidon. Apoll. Carm. xvii. 7, 8.), for the term used to express the setting out of plate upon a side-board is exponere (Pet. Sat. Ixxiii. 5.), which would be ill applied, if, according to the common accepta- tion, these cavernce were partitions, like the pigeon holes in a cabinet, in which the plate would rather be hidden than displayed. 5. A slab of marble used for coat- ing the walls of a room. (Plin. H. N. xxxv. 1.) Sometimes the whole sur- ABACUS. ABOLLA. face of the wall was covered with these slabs, as in the example, which repre- sents an apartment in Dido's palace from the Vatican Virgil ; sometimes coffers or pannels only were inserted, as an ornament ; and as extravagance is commonly accompanied by bad taste, the marble itself was occasionally painted upon (Plin. H. JY. xxxiii. 56.) ; and sometimes the coating of stucco or hard white cement, which was capable of receiving a very high polish, was sawed from the wall of an old house, and inserted as an abacus instead of marble. See Vitruv. vii. 3. 10., a passage which Becker, in his Gallus, p. 23. n. 11. Transl., is clearly mistaken in referring to sideboards. 6. A square tablet which the early builders placed upon the head of their wooden columns in order to provide a broad flat surface for the superin- cumbent beam which supported the roof, to lie upon, and thus constituted the first step in the formation of an architectural capital . Vitruv. iv. 1. 11. It is credible that this simple tablet remained for a long period as the only capital ; and in the Doric, the oldest and simplest of the Greek orders, it never lost its original character, but still continued with only the addition of one other and smaller member (the echinus) as the most prominent and imposing portion of the capital. With the invention of the richer orders the size, form, and character of the abacus were materially altered, though the name was still retained, and applied to the crowning member of any capi- tal. These varieties are fully ex- plained and illustrated under the word CAPITULUM. The illustration represents one of the tombs sculptured in the rock at Beni-Hassan, which are supposed by Sir G. Wilkinson to be as old as 1740 B. c. It is highly curious for the early traces it affords of that style of build- ing, which the labour, skill, and re- finement of the Greeks gradually im- proved and embellished until it even- tuated in the most perfect of all struc- tures, the Greek Doric temple. There is no base, nor plinth ; the columns are fluted ; the capital consists of a mere abacus ; a single beam or archi- trave forms the entablature, and sup- ports a sort of sculptural cornice in- tended to imitate a thatching of reeds ; and as there is no frieze (zophorus) between it and the architrave, we may infer that it is illustrative of a period when buildings were merely covered by an outer roof (tectum) without any soffit or ceiling (cceluni), for the beams which formed the ceiling or under roof were shown externally by the member subse- I quently termed a frieze. [ZoFHORUS.] ABOLLA. A cloak or mantle made of cloth doubled (Serv. ad Virg. Mn. v. 421.) and fastened by a brooch under the neck or upon the top of the shoulder. It was originally worn by the military, as in the example from Trajan's column, and therefore was put on by the inhabitants of the city, instead of the toga, the costume of civilians, during periods of turbulence tj 2 ABS1S. ACATIUM. or foreign invasion (Varro, ap. Non.s. v. p. 538. Mercer) ; but subsequently it came to be used more commonly, and by all classes, as an article ,/ of the ordinary attire. \\ (Juv.iv.76. Suet. Cal \ 35.) It does not differ very materially from the sagum; but was made of finer material, and somewhat small- er dimensions, whence Martial recommends persons addicted to thieving not to wear an abolla, be- cause it was not large enough to con- ceal the stolen articles beneath it. Mart. Ep. viii. 48. 2. Abolla major. The large wrap- ping blanket of the Greek philoso- phers, more especially of the Cynics, who, as they wore no under clothing, enveloped themselves for the sake of decency in a wrapper of very ample dimensions (Mart. Ep. iv. 53.). Hence the expression facinus ma- joris abolla (Juv. Sat. iii. 115.) means a crime committed by a Greek philosopher, the garment being put for the person who wears it, as we apply our phrase " the long robe " to members of the legal profession. The illustration represents Heraclitus from an engraved gem. ABSIS or APSIS. The semicir- cular termination of any rectangular chamber, forming what is commonly termed in English " an alcove. Ep. ii. 17. 8.) A form of this kind was commonly employed in courts of justice (basilica:) in order to make a convenient place for the judges' seats ; and sometimes in temples to form a recess for the statue of the deity to whom the edifice was consecrated ; as in the illustration, which shows the absis, as it now remains, of the temple of Rome and Venus, built by the Em- peror Hadrian. Compare also the illus- tration to ADYTUM, where the ground- plan of a similar member is seen. ACAPNA, sc. Ligna (&Kairva, poet. Savd, Kdyicava). A word adopted from the Greek language and employed to designate fire- wood which had under- gone a preparation to prevent it from smoking when placed upon the fire. Smokeless wood of this description was prepared in three different ways : 1st. by peeling off the bark, then soaking it a long time in water, and finally suffering it to dry thoroughly before it was used. (Theophrast. Hist. Plant, xv. 10.) The effect of this process is now well known, as it has been found that wood conveyed by water in floats burns more briskly and throws out less smoke than that which has been transported by land carriage merely : 2d. by soaking it in oil, or oil-lees, or by pouring oil over it (Cato, R. K 130. Plin. H.N. xv. 8.): 3d. by hardening and scorching it over the fire until it lost the greater i part of its moisture, without being | entirely reduced to charcoal ; this last was also designated by a special name Cocta or Coctilia. Mart. Ep. xiii. 15. 2. Acapnon mel Honey taken from the hive without smoking the bees, which was considered the best kind of honey. Columell. vi. 33. 2. Plin. H.N. xi. 15. ACAT'IUM (oKOTtoi/). A small, but fast-sailing vessel, belonging to the class termed actuaries, viz. which were worked with oars as well as sails. It was more especially used by the Greek pirates (Thucyd.iv.67.), was furnished with an armed beak (rostrum}, and had the stern rounded ACATIUM. and bent inwards (inflexa, Plin. H. N. ix. 49.), a very common form in the marine of the ancients, as will be shown by many illustrations in the course of these pages. (See ACTU- ARIUS, APHRACTUS.) It is therefore highly probable that the distinctive characteristics of these vessels con- sisted more in the style of their rigging (see No. 2.) than in the form of the hull. 2. The same word is also used in connection with the rigging of a ves- sel, being sometimes applied to desig- nate a sail, and sometimes a mast ; but which of the sails or which of the masts is nowise apparent. Xeno- phon (Hellen. vi. 2. 27.) speaks of the acatia as sails, but contradistinct to the larger sails ; Hesychius and Isi- dorus (Orig. xix. 3. 3.) on the contrary assert that the acatium was the largest sail on the ship, and attached to the main mast; while Julius Pollux (i. 91.) and Hesychius in another pas- sage affirm that it was not a sail at all, but a mast, and that one the largest or main mast. Amidst all this apparent contradiction only one thing is certain, that the acatium was especially in- vented for fast sailing with light winds. If a conjecture might be hazarded all the difficulty would be got over by assuming that it meant both the mast and the sail belonging to it ; and that it was a mast rigged after the fashion of the pirate vessels, to which the name properly belonged ; a taller and lighter mast for instance than those usually employed, fitted also with smaller sails, probably with a top-sail over the main-sail, which would be handier for working and better for sailing in fair weather than the ordi- nary heavy mast, with its cumbrous yard. Thus Iphicrates, in the passage of Xenophon already referred to, be- fore commencing his voyage, trimmed his vessels so as to be ready for any emergency. He left behind him the ordinary large set of sails (TO. fMeyd\a iaria), and consequently the heavy masts to which they belonged, and ACCENSUS. 5 fitted the ships with masts and sails (a/«m(«$), such as the pirates used in their vessels, for the rapidity they af- forded in sailing, and the fewer hands they required for working, in case he should be forced to an engagement. ACCENSUS. A civil officer at- tached to the service of several Ro- man magistrates, the consuls, prse- tors, and governors of provinces. (Varro, L.L. vii. 58. Liv. iii. 33.) He was generally the freedman of the person whom he served (Cic. ad Q. Fr. i. 1. 4.), and it was his duty to summon the people to the assem- blies, to call the parties engaged in law-suits into court, and preserve order in it (Cic. I. c. 7.), and to pro- claim the hour at sunrise, mid-day, and sunset. Plin. H.N. vii. 60. 2. The military ACCENSI were originally a body of supernumeraries enlisted for the purpose of supplying any vacancies which might occur in the legions by death or otherwise (Festus s. v. Adcensi), but subse- quently they were formed into a sepa- rate corps, belonging to the levis arma- tura, or light-armed troops, amongst whom they occupied the lowest rank of all. They were selected from the fifth class of the Servian census (Liv. i. 43.), had no body armour nor weapons of attack, properly so called, but fought, as they best could, with nothing but their fists and stones (puyniset lapidibus depugnabant, Varro ap. Non. s. Decuriones, p. 520. Mercer), precisely as shown in the annexed ACC1NCTUS. ACCUBO. figure, which is copied from the Co- lumn of Trajan. On the battle-field they were posted in the rear of the whole army, being drawn up in the last line of all, behind the Rorarii, from whence they could be advanced to assist in desultory attacks as occa- sion required. Liv. viii. 8 and 10. ACCINCTUS. In a general sense, girded, equipped, or provided with anything. But the word is more es- pecially applied to the military, and then implies that the soldier has his sword girded on, or, in other words, that he is accoutred as a soldier on duty ought to be ; like the right-hand figure in the illustration, from Tra- jan's Column. Hence, miles non ac- cinctus, means a soldier without his sword, or, as we should say, without his " side-arms," which, under a lax system of discipline, the men took off when employed upon field works, for- tifications, &c., and piled with their shields and helmets on the ground beside them, like the left-hand figure in the illustration, also from the Co- lumn of Trajan. Under a strict sys- tem, this was not allowed ; the shield and helmet only were laid aside, but the soldier was always accinctus, or had his sword on. Tac. Ann. xi. 18. Veget. Mil. iii. 8. ACCUBITA'LIA. Things which belong to a sofa or couch ; particu- larly the furniture of a bed, or a dining couch, including the cushions or pillows, mattress, and coverlet ; as seen in the two next illustrations. Valerian, ap. Trebell. Claud. 14. ACCUBIT'IO. The act of re- clining at table (Cic. Senect. 13.), as described under ACCUBO. ACCU'BITUM. A particular kind of couch used to recline upon at meals, which was substituted under the em- pire for the lectus tricliniaris. (Schol. Vet. ap. Juv. Sat. v. 17. Lamprid. Elagab. 19.) The precise form and character of this piece of furniture is nowhere described ; but as the words accubo, accumbo, accubitus, in their strict sense refer to the act of a single person, it is but reasonable to con- clude that the accubitum was a sofa intended for the reception of one per- son only : the more so as the annexed illustration from an ancient Roman marble (Symeoni, Epitaffi Antichi, p. 51. Lione, 1558) shows that sofas of such a character were actually used at meals ; while the interpretation given explains at the same time the object of their introduction, in order that any number of guests might be accommodated at an entertainment by the addition of extra sofas (Lamprid. Alex. Sev. 34.); whereas the accom- modation afforded by a tricliniary couch was limited to nine. ACCU'BITUS. Same as Accu- BITIO. Stat. Ach. i. 109. AC'CUBO (KaTOKPuVo/xat). To re- cline at table, an attitude usually adopted by the ancients at their meals, ACCUMBO. ACERSECOMES. instead of our habit of sitting. The posture of reclining, as clearly shown in the illustration, from the Vatican Virgil, was one between lying and sitting, the legs and lower part of the body being stretched out at full length on a sofa, whilst the upper part was slightly raised and supported upon the left elbow, which rested on a pillow, the right arm and hand being left free to reach out and take the food. The usual method of arranging the sofas, the etiquette of precedence, and position of the different places, is ex- plained under the word LECTUS TRI- CLINIARIS. During the later periods of Ro- man history, the men and women reclined together at their repasts ; but the Greeks considered such a posture to be indecorous for females ; their women, therefore, either sat at a separate table, or upon one end of the couch on which the men only re- clined, as shown in the illustration copied from a Greek marble in the museum of Verona, representing a funeral repast (ccena feralis). The same practice was also observed by the Romans, before the corruption of manners incident upon wealth and conquest had ensued. ACCUM'BO. Properly denotes the taking a place on a dining couch, in contradistinction to Accubo, which re- fers to a person already reclining ; and in allusion to a single person, as distin- guished from Discumbo, which has reference to several persons or the whole company. But these distinc- tions are not always observed. ACERRA (AtgweoTpis). A small square box with a lid to it (area tu- ralis. Serv. ad Virg. JEn. v. 745.), in which the incense used at a sacrifice was contain- ed. (Acerra turis custos. Ovid. Met. xiii. 703. Hor. Od. iii. 8. 2.) The illustration is copied from a bas-relief in the museum of the Capitol at Rome, on which various im- plements employed at the sacrifice are sculptured. The incense itself was not burnt in the acerra, but the box was carried to the altar by an at- tendant of the priest- hood, as shown by the annexed figure, copied from a bas- relief at Rome. The box is carried in his left hand, a jug for pouring out libations of wine (capis) in his right, and the skin of a victim over the left arm. The incense, when used, was taken out of the box, and sprinkled upon the burning altar, for which the expres- sion is libare acerra, Ov. Pont. iv. 8. 39. Pers. Sat. ii. 5. 2. According to Festus (s. v.), the same name was also given to a small portable altar placed before the dead, and on which incense was burnt. See the illustration to ARA TURI- CREMA, and compare Cic. Leg. ii. 24. ACERSEC'OMES (a/cepo-eK^O- Literally, with long and flowing hair, and thence, by implication, a young or effeminate person (Juv. Sat. viii. 128.) ; for the habit of wearing the hair unshorn was regarded as unmanly ACETABULUM. ACL1S. by the civilized Romans, among whom it was only adopted for young slaves who waited at table, an instance of which is given in PIN- CERNA ; or for the boys (Camilli) who acted as attendants upon the priesthood at the altar, as in the illustration an- nexed, which is copied from the Vatican Virgil, and represents one of these attendants. ACETAB'ULUM (o'#§a<j>oi>). A vinegar cruet, or rather cup, which the ancients used to place upon their tables at dinner, to dip their bread in. (Isidor. Orig. xx. 4. 12. Apic. viii. 7. Ulp. Dig. xxxiv. 2. 20.) We have no direct testimony of its being so employed, beyond the inference drawn from the Greek name of the vessel, which means literally a vinegar dipper. The origi- nal, of fine red clay, here figured, is in the Museum at Naples, and is an undoubted example of these cups, as the name o^v§a<f>ov is inscribed un- derneath it. Panof ka, Recherches sur les veritables Noms des Vases Grecs. . 2. The cup used by jugglers of the class now called " thimble-riggers," joueurs de gobelets, in playing the trick of the " little pea " (Seneca, Ep. 45.). This was a very common piece of jugglery both amongst the Greeks and Romans, and was played exactly in the same way as now (Alciphron, Ep. iii. 20., where the process is circumstantially detailed). The " thimble-rigger " was called ty-nQo- K\eirT7js or ^-ntyoiraittT-ris by .the Greeks (Athen. i. 34. Suidas.) ; the Romans have left no specific name, except the common one for all jugglers, prces- tigiator. Seneca, I. c. 3t A dry measure of capacity, con- taining the fourth part of a Hemina. Plin. H. N. xxi. 109. • ACIC'ULA. A diminutive of Acus ; but as the word is applied to the bodkin which women wore in their hair (Acus, 2.), the diminutive must be understood as expressing in- feriority of material, rather than smallness of size, for such ornaments were made of wood and bone, as well as ivory and the precious metals. Cod. Theodos. iii. 16. 1. ACFNACES (<XK«/C£KT/S). A short, straight poniard, peculiar to the Per- sians, Medes, and Scythians (Hor. Od. i. 27. 5. Curt. iii. 3. 18.), which was worn suspended , from a belt round the waist, so as to hang against the. right thigh (Val. Flacc. vi. 701. Floras, iv. 11. 3), as seen in the illustration from a bas-relief found amongst the ruins of Persepolis. The aci- naces was not a sword, but a dagger ; for it was worn together with the sword, but on the opposite side of the body, as may be seen on the wounded Persian in the celebrated Pompeian Mosaic, inserted under ERACM ; from the reduced scale of the drawing, it is not very prominent; but the handle of it is apparent on the right side, the sword being suspended by a belt (bal- teus) on the left. ACIS'CULUS. A small "pick," used chiefly by builders and stone masons, having a bluff end like a hammer at one extre- mity, and a curved point, or pick, at the other. It is re- presented on several coins of the Valerian family, with the name inscribed below it, from one of which the example is taken. Quint, vi. 3. 53. AC'LIS or ACLYS. A massive weapon used by the Osci, and some foreign nations, but not by the Greeks or Romans (Virg. JEn. vii. 730. Sil. Ital. iii. 363.). It appears to have been a sort of harpoon ; for it con- sisted of a short thick stock set with spikes, and attached to a line, so that ACRATOPHORUM. ACTUARIUS. it might he recovered again after it had been launched (Serv. ad Virg. I. c.) ; but it was only known to Servius by tradition, having fallen into disuse long before his time. ACRATOPH'ORUM (dxparo- <p6pov). Properly a Greek term, but familiarized in the Latin lan- guage as early as the time of Varro (Varro, R.E. i. 8. 5. Cic. Fin. iii. 4.), and employed to designate the vessel in which pure or unmixed wine was placed upon the table (Pol- lux, vi. 99.)- It was, therefore, in some measure, an opposite to the Crater, a larger vessel, used for a similar purpose, but containing wine and water mixed together. The illustration is copied from a marble vase (Buonarotti, Vasi di Vetro. p. 31.), bearing an inscrip- tion dedicated to Silvanus, and orna- mented with a wreath [of vine leaves. It corresponds exactly in form with two others delineated by the Pompeian artists, one of which is placed at the feet of a statue of Bacchus (Mus. Borb. vii. 56.), and the other in the hands of the god Acratus (Mus. Borb. vii. 62.), which, taken together, are quite sufficient to identify the form. ACROPOD'IUM. A word coined from the Greek, though not found in any Greek author ; the exact mean- ing of which is open to some doubts ; but the most probable interpre- tation seems to be, the low square plinth com- monly seen under the feet of a marble statue (Hygin. Fab. 88.), as in the illustration, which represents the statue of Juno, placed in front of a temple, from the Vati- can Virgil. This aero- podium formed a component part of the statue itself ; but it also served as a sort of upper basement or podium (&Kpov •jroStov') for the figure to rest on, when it was placed in an elevated position, or upon a regular base con- structed for the purpose, as in the il- lustration. ACROTE'RIA (a/cpor^o). The pedestals placed on the summit and angles of a pediment for the purpose of supporting statues. (Vitruv. iii. 5. 12.) They were frequently made without bases or cornices, as in the illustration. ACTUA'RIOLUM. Diminutive of ACTUARIUS. A small vessel, or open boat, propelled chiefly by oars, never exceeding eighteen in number; the one which transported Cicero (Ep. ad Att. xvi. 3.) had ten ; but they were sometimes assisted by a sail when the wind served. (Scheffer, Mil. Nav. ii. 2.) The example is copied from a miniature in the Vatican Virgil. ACTUA'RIUS. Naves actuaries, or simply Actuaries. A large class of open vessels worked by sweeps and sails, in contradistinction to the mer- chantmen, or sailing vessels (onerarioe). 10 ACUS. ADMISSARIUS. (Sisenna. ap. Non. s. v. p. 535. Cic. Att. v. 9.) Properly speaking, these were not ships of war, that is of the line, but were employed for all pur- poses requiring expedition, as packet boats, transports (Liv. xxv. 30.), for keeping a look-out, and by pirates (Sallust. Fragm. ap. Non. I. c.), and were never fitted with less than eighteen oars. (Scheffer, Mil. Nav. ii. 2.) The illustration is from the Va- tican Virgil. 2. Actuarii. Short-hand writers, who took down the speeches delivered in the senate or public assemblies. Suet. Jul. 55. 3. Under the empire, officers who kept the commissariat accounts, re- ceived the supplies for the use of the army from the contractors, and dis- pensed them in rations to the troops. Ammian, xx. 5. 9. Id. xxv. 10. 17. Aurel. Viet. p. 293. ACUS (d/ceVrpa, &e\6vr], £a<Jn's). Seems to have designated in the Latin language both a pin for fastening, and a needle for sewing ; as the specific senses in which the word is ap- plied are some- times character- istic of the former, and sometimes the latter of these two implements, which we distinguish by separate names. (Cic. Milo, 24. Celsus, vii. 16. Ovid. Met. vi. 23.) The illustration represents a box of pins found at Pompeii, and a sewing needle an inch and a half long, from the same city. 2. Acus comatoria, or crinalis. A large bodkin or pin several inches long, made of gold, silver, bronze, ivory, or wood, which the women used to pass through their back hair after it had been plaited or turned up, in order to keep it neatly arranged, a fashion still retained in many parts of Italy. (Pet. Sat. xxi. 1. Mart. Ep. ii. 66. Id. xiv. 24. Apul. Met. viii. p. 161. Varior.} The illus- tration is taken from the fragment of a statue in the Ducal Gallery at Flo- rence, which shows the mode of wear- ing these hair-pins ; but a great va- riety of originals have been discovered at Pompeii and elsewhere, of different materials and fancy designs, which are engraved in the Museo Borbonico (ix. 15.), and in Guasco (Dette Orna- trici, p. 46.). 3. The tongue of a brooch, or of a buckle formed precisely in the same manner as our own, as seen in the illustrations, which are all copied from ancient originals. Valerian, ap. Tre- bell. Claud. 14. 4. A needle used for trimming oil- lamps, and usually suspended by a chain to the lamp, as is still the common practice in Italy. The illustration is copied from an original bronze lamp exca- vated in Pompeii, and a part of the chain by which it hangs is shown. The use of it was to draw up and lengthen the wick as it burnt down in the socket ; et producit acu stupas humore carentes. Virg. Morel. 11. 5. A dibble for planting vines. Pallad. i. 43. 2. 6. A surgeon's probe (Furnaletti, s. v.) ; but he does not quote any an- cient authority, and the proper term for that instrument was SPECILLUM. ADMISSA'RIUS, sc. equus (dva- §C£TT?S). A stallion kept especially for the purpose of breeding ; for as the ancients mostly rode and drove entire horses, none but those especially kept for the purpose were allowed to have intercourse with the mares. Varro, R. R. ii. 7. 1. Columell. vi. 27. 3. 2. Also used of other animals, as ADORATIO. ADYTUM. 11 of asses. Varro, R. R. ii. 8. 3. Pal- lad, iv. 14. 2. ADORA'TIO (irpoffnvvriffis, Soph. Electr. 1374). The act of adoration, a mark of reverence exhibited by passers-by to any person or object to- wards which they wished to show ex- treme reverence and respect. This action was expressed by the following attitude and movements: — the body was inclined slightly forwards and the knees gently bent, whilst the right hand touched the object of reverence, an altar, statue, &c. ; the left was raised up to the mouth {ad os, from whence the term is.derived), kissed, and then waved towards the object intended to be honoured. (Plin. H. N. xxviii. 5. xxix. 20. Apul. Met. iv. p. 83. Varior. Id. Apol p. 496.) The chief motions in this pantomime are clearly shown in the illustration, which is copied from an engraved gem in Gorlseus (Dactyliothec., p. ii. No. 63. ). ADULA'TIO (irpoffKvvytris, Herod, i. 134). The most abject manner of doing an act of reverence, as practised by the Persians and other Oriental races by prostration of the body and bowing the head upon the ground (Liv. ix. 18. Id. xxx. 16. Suet. Vi- tell 2. Curt. viii. 5.), as represented in the annexed gem (Gorlseus, Dac- tyliothec. ii. 396.), in which a wor- shipper is performing adulation to the god Anubis. The Latin poets also designated this act by such expressions as procumbere (Tibull. i. 2. 85.), or pronus adorare (Juv. Sat. vi. 48.). ADVERSA'RIA, sc. scripta. A day-book, or common-place book, in which accounts or memorandums were put down at the moment to be subsequently transcribed into a ledger, or into a regular journal. Cic. pro Rose. Com. 2. AD'YTUM (ttvrov). A private or secret chamber in a temple, from which every person but the officiating priests were strictly excluded. (Cses. B. C. \i\. 105. Virg. Mn. vi. 98.) That the adytum was distinct from the cella, is clear from a passage of Lucan (Phars. v. 141 — 161.), in which the priestess, dreading the violent exertions she would have to undergo from the stimulants applied in the secret chamber to produce an effect like prophetic inspiration — pavens adyti penetrale remotiFatidicum — stops short in the body of the temple and refuses to advance into the adytum, or den (antrum) as it is there termed, until she is compelled by force. A chamber of this kind is represented in that portion of the annexed illustra- tion, which lies behind the circular absis, marked in a stronger tint than the rest, and which communicates with the body of the edifice by two doors, one on each side. The whole repre- sents the ground-plan of a small Doric temple, formerly existing near the theatre of Marcellus, at Rome on the c 2 12 ADYTUM. ^EDITUUS. site of which the church of S. Niccola in Carcere now stands. It is copied from the work of Labacco, who sur- veyed it in the 1 6th century, Libro dell' Architettura, Roma, 1558. Apartments of this description were constructed for the purpose of en- abling the priesthood to delude their votaries by the delivery of oracular responses, the exhibition of miracles, or any sort of preternatural effects, and at the same time conceal the agency by which they were produced. They consequently were not attached to all temples, but only to those in which oracles were uttered, or where the particular form of worship was connected with mysteries-, which explains why such contrivances are so seldom met with in the ground- plans of ancient temples still existing. But the remains of another ancient temple at Alba Fucentis, in the coun- try of the Marsi, now Alba, on the Lake of Fucino, afford ample con- firmation that the illustration intro- duced may be regarded as a true specimen of the ancient adytum. The interior of that edifice retained its pristine form, and was in a complete state of preservation when visited by the writer. It differs only slightly in construction from the example in the cut ; for the secret chamber is not placed behind the absis, but is constructed underneath it, part being sunk lower than the general floor of the main body of the temple (cello) and part raised above it, so that the portion above would appear to the worshippers in the temple merely as a raised basement, occupying the lower portion of the absis, and intended to support in an elevated position the statue of the deity to whom the edifice was dedicated ; nor has it any door or visible communication into the body of the temple ; the only entrance into ' it being afforded by a postern gate within a walled enclosure at the back of the premises, through which the priests introduced themselves and their machinery unseen and unknown. But the one remarkable feature of the whole, and that which proves to con- viction the purpose to which it has been applied, consists in a number of tubes or hollow passages formed in the walls, which communicate from this hidden recess into the interior of the temple, opening upon different parts of the main walls of the cella, and thus enable a voice to be conveyed into any part of the temple, whilst the person and place from whence it comes remain concealed. jEDES. [DOMUS, TEMPLUM.] ^EDIC'ULA. A shrine, taber- nacle, or canopy, with a frontispiece supported by columns, constructed within the cella of a temple, and under which the statue of |* the divinity was placed — quadrigce inauratte in Capitolio positfe in cella Jovis supra fas- tigium cediculte. (Liv. xxxv. 41.) The illustration repre- sents the statue of Jupiter under a tabernacle in the Capitoline temple, as described by Livy in the passage quoted, and is taken from a medal struck in honour of the Vestal virgin, jElia Quirina. 2. A small cabinet made of wood after the model of a temple, in which the family busts or images of a man's ancestors (ima- gines majorum*), the Lares, and tutelar deities of a house were preserved, and placed in large cases round the atrium. (Pet. Sat. xxix. 8.) The illustration is copied from a bas-relief in the British Mu- seum, and represents an cedicula, in which the bust of Protesilaus is de- posited. Compare Ovid. Her. xiii. 150—158. ^DIT'UUS, ^DIT'IMUS, or jEDIT'UMUS (vao$v\a^ !epo<pv\a£, vea>K6pos). A sacristan, or guardian, to whose surveillance the care of a tem- ple was committed. Varro. L. L. viii. 12. Gell. xii. 10. He kept the keys, 13 opened it at the appointed hours (Liv. xxx. 17.), attended to the sweeping and cleaning (Eurip. Ion. 80 — 150.), and acted as a guide to strangers by ex- plaining the rarities and works of art it contained. Plin. xxxvi. 4. § 10. The appointment was an honourable one (Serv. ad Virg. JEn. ix. 648.), for it was a place of trust and re- sponsibility ; as may also be inferred from the style and dress of the figure annexed, which affords a rare example of the Greek cedituus, from a bas-relief at Dres- den, whose office is indicated by the broom of laurel leaves, which was used for sweeping the temple at Delphi. Eurip. Ion. II. cc. JEGIS (aryfr). In its primary sense a goafs skin, which the pri- mitive inhabitants of Greece used, as well as the skins of other animals, as an article of clothing and defence. This would be naturally put on over the back, and tied by the front legs over the chest, so as to protect both the back and breast of the wearer, as seen in the statue of Juno Lanuvina in the Vatican Museum (Visconti, Mus. Pio Clem. ii. tav. 21.). It thus formed the original type of the segis, as worn by Jupiter and Minerva, which was made out of the goat Amalthea, which suckled Jupiter in his infancy. Hygin. Astron. ii. 13. The illustration exhibits a figure of Minerva on a fictile lamp (but imi- tated from a very ancient type), wearing the segis as described above, which covers the breast, and falls down behind the back as low as the knees. The snakes of the Gorgon's head placed upon it form a fringe round the edges in the same manner as Homer (//. ii. 448.) describes the tassels on the segis of Jove. 2. As such a mantle formed a cumbrous appendage to a statue in the ideal style of Greek sculpture, it was transformed by the artists of that country into a small and elegantly formed breast-plate, co- vered with scales, to imitate armour, and decorated with the Gorgon's head in the centre, as in the figure of Minerva here given, also from a fictile lamp, word jEgis was subsequently used to designate the breast-plate of a divinity, but more especially of Jupiter and Minerva, as contradistinguished from Lorica, the breast-plate of mortals. Ovid. Met. vi. 79. Id. ii. 755. Serv. ad Virg. JEn. viii. 435. 3. At a still later period the same word was used to designate the ordinary cuirass worn by persons of distinction, such as the Ma- cedonian kings and Roman em- perors, when de- corated with an image of the Gorgon's head in front (Mart. Ep. vii. 1.), which they adopted amongst its other or- naments in token of the divine cha- From this the 14 ^ENEATOR. racter and authority they assumed, as in the example, from a statue at Rome. 4. The translation of aegis, a shield, conveys an idea quite remote from the original and true meaning of the word ; for almost every figure in the works of ancient art with a goat- skin on the breast, is also furnished with a shield apart ; and the passages where a defence in the nature of a shield is supposed to be referred to, are either equivocal, or may be under- stood with equal truth as descriptive of the large mantle of goat-skin shown in the first wood-cut ; which could easily be drawn forward over the left arm, to protect it like a shield in the same manner as the Athenians used their chlamys (see CLIPEATUS CHLA- MYDE), and as represented by the figure annexed, which is copied from a very ancient statue of Minerva in the Royal Museum at Naples. ^ENEA'TOR. A collective name for one who belonged to a brass band, and played upon any of the different wind instruments used in the army, at the public games, or religious cere- monies, including the Buccinatores, Comicines, and Tubicines. Suet. Jul. 32. Amm. Marc. xxiv. 4. 22. Metal vases with a very small orifice, which were filled with water and placed on the fire to elucidate the origin and nature of wind by the effect of steam engendered within them. (Vitruv. i. 6. 2.). jEQUIPON'DIUM (a-h- The equipoise or moveable weight attached to a steel-yard (statera), and balance (libra, Vitruv. x. 3, 4.). A great many of these have been found at Pompeii and elsewhere, mostly made of bronze, and of some fan- ciful device, such as the ex- ample produced, which is taken from a Pompeian ori- ginal. ^RA'RIUM. The public treasury of the Roman -state, as distinguished from the exchequer, or private trea- sury of the emperors (Jiscus) ; in which the produce of the yearly re- venue, the public accounts, the decrees of the senate, and the standards of the legions, were deposited. (Cic. Leg. iii. 4. Tac. Ann. iii. 51. Liv. iii. 69.) During the republic the temple of Saturn was used as the treasury. 2. jZErarium sanctius. A private department of the same, in which were kept the monies and treasures acquired by foreign conquest, and the fees paid by slaves for their manu- mission (aurum vicesimariurn), and which was never opened but upon great emergencies. Liv. xxvii. 10. Compare Quint, x. 3. 3. 3. jErarium militare. The army pay-office, a separate treasury esta- blished by Augustus to provide for the expenses of the army, for which purpose some new taxes were im- posed. Suet. Octav. 49. JERO. A sand-basket made of oziers, rushes, or sedge (Plin. H. N. xxvi. 21. Vitruv. v. 12. 15.), which is fre- quently represented as used by the sol- diers employed in excavations, forti- fications, and ordi- nary field works, on the Column of Trajan, from whi the annexed illustration is taken. The word, however, is only a collo- AGGER. 15 quial term employed by the common people, or in familiar language. Do- nat. ap. Terent. Phorm. i. 2. 72. jERU'CA. A bright green colour artificially made to imitate the natural verdigris (cerugo) which bronze ac- quires by age. Vitruv. vii. 12. Com- pare Plin. H. JY. xxxiv. 26., who de- scribes the different processes for making this colour, but which he terms cerugo. jERU'GO (tbs xa^ou). The bright green rust which bronze ac- quires from age, as distinguished from the brown rust of iron (jerrugo, ru- biyo, Cic. Tusc. iv. 14.). The older the bronze, the more bright and beau- tiful the colour becomes, which is considered to enhance its value ; and on that account a statue of high an- tiquity was prized by the ancients far beyond one of more recent casting. Wink. Storia delleArti, vii. 2. 10. jERUSCA'TOR. A charlatan, begging impostor, or one who raises the wind by imposing upon the cre- dulity of others. Aul. Gell. xiv. 1, 2. Comp. ix. 2. 2. MS THERMA'RUM. A metal bell or gong, which was suspended in the public baths, in order to notify to the public by its sounds when the hot water for the baths was ready. Mart. Ep. xiv. 163. are there suspended at the windows. Blanchini, Instrument. Mus. Vet. tav. vii. No. 8. AGA/SO(t7T7roK:oVos). A slave at- tached to the stables, who dressed the horses, led them out, and held them till his master mounted ; a groom, ostler, or stable boy (Liv. xliii. 5. The illustration shows two of these implements, from an ancient painting representing a set of baths, and which Plin. H. N. xxxv. 40. § 29.), as seen in the example from the Vatican Virgil. 2. Sometimes also applied to those who have the charge of other animals, such as donkeys (Apul. Met. vi. p. 121., Varior.\ and in a more general sense transferred to any of the lower class of slaves. Hor. Sat. ii. 8. 72. AGATHOD^EMON (dyaeoSal- fj.wv). The Greek name for a good spirit or guardian angel, for which the Latin term is GENIUS, q. v. Lamprid. Elagab. 28. Inscript. ap. Visconti, Mus. Pio Clem. torn. i. p. 153. AGE' A. The passage or gangway by which the boatswain (Jwrtator) ap- proached the rowers (Isidor. Orig. xix. 2. 4. Ennius, ap. Isidor. /. c.); also termed aditus in less technical language. Ovid. Met. iii. 623. AGGER (xoyia). Generally any thing which is thrown together — quod adgeritur — to fill up a void, or raise a mound, whether of earth, wood, or rubbish, whence the fol- lowing more special senses are de- rived. 1. An artificial mound or rampart with which the Romans surrounded their camps, or any position intended to be occupied for a certain period during the campaign. It was most commonly a large embankment of earth, surmounted on the top by 16 AGGER. palisades (vallum\ and protected on the outside by a trench (fossa), formed by the excavation of the earth dug out of it to form the agger. But in situations where the nature of the soil would not admit of an embank- ment of earth, other materials of ready and easy access were had recourse to, and it was then frequently constructed out of the trunks of trees filled in with brushwood, &c., as in the illustration from the Column of Trajan. The top of it is covered by a vallum or pali- sade, and a boarded gallery over head for the protection of the soldiery. The example will at once explain the meaning of those passages in which it is mentioned that the agger was set on fire. Cses. Bell Civ.il 14. 2. Agger murorum. (Virg. JEn. x. 24.) An embankment upon which the walls and towers of a fortified city were built, and which served as a rampart upon which the garrison were stationed to defend the place. It was constructed of earth thrown up in the manner last described, but was more- over cased with masonry, and as- cended from the inside by a flight of steps, as seen in the cut, which is a section of the agger and walls still re- maining at Pompeii, with an elevation of one of its towers partially restored. 3. A temporary mound of earth, wood, or any other materials ready at hand, thrown up against the walls of a besieged city, on which the bat- tering train (tormenta bellica') was placed, and for the purpose of raising the assaulting parties to a level with the ramparts. Like the parallels in modern warfare, it was commenced at some distance from the city walls, and then gradually widened on the inside until it met them, which is implied by such expressions as agger promotus ad urbem, Liv. v. 7. 4. Agger vice, properly the road, that is, the central part of a street or highway intended for the traffic of carriages and cattle (Virg. Mn. v. 273.) which was paved with stones imbedded in cement laid upon several strata of broken rubbish (compare VIA), and slightly raised in the centre, so that the section formed an elliptical outline, as seen in the annexed plan, which is a section between the curb stones of the Via Sacra, leading up to the temple of Jupiter Latialis. The plan upon which it was constructed explains why this part of a road was called the agger (Serv. ad Virg. I. c. Isidor. Orig. xv. 16. 7.), though the name is some- times used in a more general sense, as synonymous with VIA, as Aurelius agger instead of Via Aurelia. Rutil. Itiner. 39. 6. An artificial embankment or dyke upon the sides of a river to pro- tect the country from inundations (Virg. A2n. ii. 496.), and also a mar- gin of masonry, forming the quay of AGINA. AGITATRIX. 17 a port, to which the vessels were made fast. (Ovid. Met. xv. 690. Id. Trist. iii. 9. 13.) The illustration represents a dyke of rough stones formed at the confluence of two rivers from the Column of Trajan. AGFNA. The socket or eye, to which the beam of a balance is pinned, and in which the upright index (examen, ligula) oscillates to show that the object weighed corresponds ex- actly with the weight in the opposite scale. (Festus. s. v. Tertull. ad Her- a chariot of war or not. (Virg. jEn. ii. 476.) The illustration is from a mog. 41.) Both the agina and the in- dex affixed perpendicularly on the centre of the beam are shown in the illustration, which is taken from an original of bronze. Caylus. iv. 96. 4. AGITA'TOR. Generally one who puts any thing in motion ; but more especially applied to those who drive cattle ; and in the following special cases. 1. Agitator aselli (oj/TjAarrjs). A donkey boy, or donkey driver (Virg. Georg. i. 273.). From a fictile lamp formerly in the possession of Fabretti (Co/. Tr. Addend, p. ult). 2. Agitator equorum (r\vioxos). A coachman, or charioteer, who drove another person in a carriage, whether terra cotta, representing Paris carry- ing away Helen. Wink. Mon. Ined. 117.) 3. When used by itself and without any other word to modify or distin- guish it, a driver at the chariot- races of the Circus (Plaut. Men. i. 2. 50. Suet. Nero, 22.) Compare AURIGA. The illustration is from a terra cotta lamp, formerly in the possession of Bartoli. AGITA'TRIX. A female who sets any thing in motion ; hence, syl- 18 AGMINALIS. AHENUM. varum agitatrix, a huntress, who beats up the woods and covers (Arnob. iv. p. 141.), particularly applied to Diana, the goddess of the chase ; in which character she appears in the illustra- tion from a terra cotta lamp, formerly in the collection of Bartoli. AGMINA'LIS, sc.equus. A sump- ter horse, which follows an army for the purpose of carrying the arms, accoutrements, and baggage, as in the example from the Column of Trajan, which shows one of these animals laden with the shields and helmets of the Roman soldiers. Dig. 50. 4. 18. §.21. Cod. Theodos. 8. 5. 6. AG'OLUM. A long tapering stick used by the Roman drovers and herdsmen, for driving their cattle. (Festus. s. v.) The drovers of the Roman Campagna make use of a si- milar instrument at the present day, formed by a long straight shoot of the prickly pear, precisely like the example here given, which is from a painting at Pompeii. AGONOTH'ETA (dya^e'T^)- The president at the public games in Greece, always a person of distinc- tion, whose office it was to decide disputes, declare the victors, and award the prizes. Spart. Hadr. 13. AGRIMENSO'RES. Land sur- veyors. (Amm. Marc. xix. 11. 8.) A body formed into a college by the Roman emperors, and paid by the state. AHE'NUM. Properly a copper or boiler for heating water, which was sus- pended over the fire, in centra-distinction to the saucepan (caca- bus) for boiling meat or vegetables, and which was placed upon it (Paul. Dig. 33. 7. 18. Serv. ad Virg. JEn. i. 213.) ; the distinction however is not always observed. The example is copied from an original of bronze found at Pompeii ; the eye at the top of the handle is to receive the hook by which it was suspended. 2. The coppers which contained the water for supplying a bath (Vitruv. v. 10. 1.). These were always three in number, ar- ranged with a nice regard to economy of fuel. The largest, which contained the hot water (caldarium), was placed imme- -' diately over the fur- nace, the mouth of which is shown by the square aper- ture at the bottom of the annexed woodcut; over that was placed a second (tepidarium), which only re- ceived a mitigated heat from the greater distance of the fire, and which, therefore, contained water of a lower temperature ; the uppermost of all (frigidariuni) received the cold water direct from the cistern ; thus, when the hot water was drawn off from the lowest copper, the empty space was immediately filled up with fluid which had already acquired a certain degree of heat, and the second ALA. 19 was again replenished with cold water from above. All this is made very clear by the illustration, which shows the three boilers used in the baths at Pompeii, as restored by Sir W. Gell from the impressions which their figures have left in the mortar of the wall behind them in which they were set. A'LA. The wing of a bird, and thence, from the resemblance in use, the feather affixed to the shaft of an arrow to guide and steady its course through the air. (Virg. JEn. ix. 578.) The example shows a Greek arrow found in Attica. 2. A large recess in Roman houses of any size and splendour, of which there were generally two, one on each side of the atrium (Vitruv. vi. 3. 4.), furnished with seats, and closed in front with curtains; and which, if we may judge from the analogy afforded by the houses of modern Turkey, (which have two precisely similar recesses on their galleries, closed with curtains, and fitted with divans,) were intended for the master of the house to receive his visitors, and enjoy the conver- sation of his acquaintance. The position of the Alee is shown on the ground-plan of the house of Pansa [see DOMUS], where they are marked c. c ; their internal elevation in the engraving above, which is a restor- ation of the atrium of the house of Sallust at Pompeii, and in which the entrance to the ala3 is formed by the two large doorways with the curtains drawn aside at the furthest angle of the chamber, on the right and left hand. 3. In large buildings, such as a basilica or Etruscan temple, which were divided by rows of columns into a centre nave and two side aisles, like our churches (a distribution, of which the great temple at Psestum affords an existing specimen ; see also the illustration to BASILICA), these side aisles appear to be termed Alee by Vitruvius (iv. 7. 2.) ; and, in consequence, Professor Becker (Gallus, p. 107. Transl) wishes to establish that the alee of private houses were not the apartments de- scribed above, but merely two side- aisles, separated in like manner by rows of columns from the centre of the atrium. But, to support this position, he is under the necessity of inventing an imaginary atrium of his own, unlike any which has yet been discovered either at Pompeii or else- where— of separating the caveedium from the atrium, — and of composing a Roman house upon a plan entirely conjectural, which he, therefore, dis- tributes into the three separate divi- sions— the atrium first, next the cavsedium, and the peristyle beyond ; all which, though plausible enough in theory, receives no corroboration from anything yet brought to light ; and, therefore, in the absence of posi- tive authority, the interpretation given under No. 2. seems most en- titled to confidence. 4. The wing of an army, which, in the Latin writers, is equivalent to saying the division or contingent furnished by the allies ; for these were always stationed on the flanks, to cover the legions consisting of Roman citizens, who always occupied the centre of the battle array. Veget. Mil. 2. 14. 5. For a similar reason, also ap- plied to a brigade of cavalry con- taining 300 men and upwards, fur- nished by the allies, and in like D 2 20 ALABASTER. ALEXANDRINUM OPUS. manner posted upon the flanks. Cin- cius ap. Gell. xvi. 4. 4. ALABASTER or ALABAS- TRUM (d\d€aarrpos and -ov). A small vase for holding oint- ments of a choice de- scription (Cic. Fragm. ap. Non. s. v. p. 545. Mercer. Pet. Sat. Ix. 3.) ; mostly made out of an onyx stone (Pliri. H.N. xxxvi. 12.), or sometimes of gold (Theocr. Idyl. xv. 114.), but of a peculiar form, like the shape of a pear, a pearl drop, or a rose bud, to all of which it is likened. (Plin. H. N. ix. 56. Id. xxi. 10.) The example is from an original formerly in the possession of the Roman anti- quary Pietro Ciacconi. Fortunatus Schackius, Myriothec. i. 47. ALA'RII. The troops stationed on the wings of a Roman army, in- cluding both infantry and cavalry, which were always formed out of the contingents furnished by the allies, and consequently varied in their arms and accoutrements, according to the customs of the different nations by whom they were supplied. (Cic. Fam. ii. 17. Cses. B. G. i. 51.) Bodies of j such troops are represented in several ; battles on the Column of Trajan, as i of the German auxiliaries, and Sar- | matian cavalry, &c., each in the | costume of their respective countries, j ALBA'RIUM or OPUS ALB. (Kovlafia). Stucco or cement, with which brick walls were covered, made out of sandstone, brick, and marble, powdered and ground toge- ther for an outside coating ; or of gyp- sum and plaster of Paris, for the finer kinds used in the interior. Vitruv. vii. 2. Plin. H.N. xxxvi. 55. ib. 59. ALBA'RIUS (jeowarfc). A plas- terer, whose trade it was to cover the walls with cement, and make orna- mental cornices, friezes, and reliefs in stucco. Inscript. ap. Gruter. 642. Compare Plin. H.N. xxxvi. 59. albatus (Plin. H.N. viii. 65.), a driver who wore the white colour, or be- longed to the white company (factio albatd). ALBO-GALE'RUS. The fur cap worn by the Flamen Dialis, which was made of the skin of a white victim which had been sacrificed to Jupiter, with a spike of olive wood projecting from the top, pre- cisely as seen in the illustration taken from a medal struck in honour of Marcus Anto- ninus. Festus. s. v. Varro. ap. Gell. x. 15. 4. ALBUM (\evKufjLa). A space or patch covered with white plaster against the walls of a building, upon which public announcements or ad- vertisements to the public were 11. ALBA'TUS. Clothed in white. Thus in the Circensian games, auriga written ; and thence the name is given to any sort of white tablet bearing an inscription, such as a list of the senators, the praetor's edicts, or things of a like nature. (Paul. Sen- tent. 1. i. t 14. Seneca. Ep. 48. Cic. Orat ii. 12.) The illustration is a facsimile, upon a reduced scale, of an album written against one of the houses in Pompeii, which appears to have been equivalent to a modern announcement, such as : " Patron- ized by the Royal Family," or " By appointment." The words of it are MARCUM . CERRINIUM . VATIAM . AEDILEM . ORAT . UT . FAVEAT . SCRIBA . ISSUS . DIGNTJS . EST. i.e.. Issus, the scribe, solicits the pa- tronage of M. Cerrinius Vatia, the sedile ; he is a fit person. ALEXANDRI'NUM OPUS. A particular kind of mosaic work, ALICULA. AL1PTES. 21 especially used for the flooring of rooms, and belonging to the class of pavements termed sectilia, the dis- tinctive character of which consisted in this, that the frets or patterns forming the designs, were composed by the conjunction of only two colours, red and black for instance, on a white ground, as in the example, which re- presents a portion of a pavement in a house at Pompeii. (Lamprid. Alex. Sev. 25.) The words of Lampridius seem to imply that this description of mosaic was first introduced by Seve- rus ; but such a notion is rendered untenable by the numerous specimens of it in the Pompeian houses. We must, therefore, understand that Severus merely introduced the cus- tom of forming such pavements by the contrast of two sorts of marble different in colour and quality from those which had been previously em- ployed for the purpose, viz. porphyry and Lacedaemonian marble. ALIC'ULA. A short cloak or mantle resembling the chlamys in form, but of smaller dimensions, fastened by a brooch in front, and worn by persons of humble means (Mart. Ep. xii. 82.), by sportsmen (Pet. Sat. xl. 5.), and by young persons. (Ulp. Dig, 34. 2. 24.) It is often seen in works of ancient art, like the example, which is from a painting at Pompeii, in all of which the designation is clearly explained by the resemblance it bears to a pair of little wings, as the wind or motions of the wearer raise it floating from his shoulders. A.'LIPES(irT€p6irovs). Having wings on the feet, an epithet especially given to the god Mercury, as in the ex- ample from a terra cotta lamp. Ovid. Fast. v. 100. Id. Met. iv. 753. ALIP'ILUS^apcmATpios). A slave attached to the baths, or kept by private persons for the purpose of plucking out the straggling hairs from any parts of the body, or under the arm-pits. Both males and females were employed for this purpose. Seneca, Ep. 56. Compare Juv. Sat. xi. 157. Cratin. 'Op. 2. ALIPTES or ALIPTA (aAe/Wr/s). Properly a Greek word, but used by the Romans in the same sense as by the Greeks, to designate a person who combined in himself the several duties and authority of a lanista and unctor. It was his business to anoint and rub the bodies of the Athletae with oil and fine sand mixed together before and after a contest in the Palaestra, or of young persons in the gymnastic schools ; as well as to direct and pre- side over their training and exercises (Aristot. Eth. N. 2. 6. 7. Pindar, Olymp. viii. 54 — 71.); and also to give them advice respecting their 22 ALLIGATI. ALTARE. diet and mode of living, which he was enabled to do from the knowledge he possessed of their muscular con- formation, and general state of bodily health. Cic. Fam. i. 9. Celsus, i. 1. 2. A slave attached to the baths, for whom the genuine Latin term is unctor, whose business it was to rub the bather dry, scrape off the perspiration with the strigil, and then anoint the body with unguents. (Seneca, Ep. 56. Juv. Sat. vi.422.) The illustration is taken from a fresco which represents a bathing room painted on the walls of a sepulchral chamber on the Appian Way, discovered in the last century (Ficoroni, La Bolla d'Oro, p. 45.). It was undoubtedly copied from some celebrated original, for Juvenal must have had a similar one in his mind's eye when he wrote the passage above referred to. ALLIGA'TI. In a special sense, a captive or prisoner of war with the soldier who had charge of him ; i. e. the two to- gether were called alligati, because it was the Roman practice to chain the prisoner to his captor, the mana- cle being fastened to the right wrist of the former, and to the left of the soldier to whose custody he was com- mitted ; whence the allusion of Seneca ( Tranquill. i. 10.), alligati sunt qui al- ligaverunt. (Compare Stat. Theb. xii. 460.) The illustration from the arch dedicated by the silversmiths of Rome to Septimius Severus, represents a Roman soldier with his prisoner, the latter with both his hands chained together behind his back, while the soldier is preparing to fasten the chain to his own arm : the ring which forms the manacle is seen at the end of the chain. ALLOCU'TIO. An address or ha- rangue ; especially such as the Roman generals were in the custom of de- livering to their soldiery. Allocutions of this kind are frequently repre- sented on medals, triumphal arches, and columns, at which the com- manders appear upon a raised plat- form (suggestuni), attended by their chief officers, with the standards and body of the troops arranged in front, as here shown from a medal of An- toninus, which also bears the inscrip- tion ADLOCUTIO AUGUST. S. C. ALTA'RE. According to the gram- marians, a high altar (quasi alia ara), which was dedicated only to the gods above (Serv. ad Virg. Eel v. 66. Festus, s. i\), whilst the Ara was both lower, and employed in sacrificing to the gods below as well as those above. Such an interpretation may possibly acquire authority from the engraved gem here figured (Agostini, Gemme, 142.), in which two altars, both with incense burning on them, but one much more elevated than the other, are seen ; a similar example occurs in the miniatures of the Vatican Virgil, in which four square altars are depicted, two tall and two lower ALT ART UM. ALVEOLUS. 23 ones, and which seem to illustrate such a passage as inter aras et altar la (Plin. Paneg. i. 5. Compare Plin. H. N. xv. 40.), and other places in which the two words are distinguished. The interpretation that altare means that which is placed on the altar (ara) is scarcely so satis- factory; for in the passage of Quin- tilian (Declam. xii. 26.) arls altaria imponere, the reading is doubtful ; and that of Justin (xxiv. 2.), sumptis in manus altaribus, will bear a very different interpretation. ALTA'RIUM, i. q. ALTARE. Sulp. Sev. i. 19. ALTICINCTUS (fytfrvos): Hav- ing the tunic drawn high up through the girdle, and above the knees in order to allow free action to the limbs, *as was usual with rustics, labourers, or persons engaged in hard work or active exercise. (Phaedr. ii. 5. 11.) The example is copied from the Vati- can Virgil. ALU'TA. Leather dressed with alum (alumeri) in order to render it soft and pliable ; whence the word is often used by the poets for a boot, shoe, purse, &c., made of such leather. Mart. xii. 26. Juv. Sat. xiv. 282. 2. A patch, or beauty spot for the face. Ovid. Art. Am. iii. 202. ALVEA'RE (ffpnvos, (ri/m€\os). A beehive, in which the bees make their combs and deposit their honey. (Columell. ix. 11. 1.) Amongst the ancients these were sometimes made of me- tal, of which an ex- ample is introduced (s. FORT) from an original found at Pompeii ; also of earthenware, but they were not approved, as being most affected by the vicissitudes of heat and cold. The best were made from strips of cork, or of the fennel-plant (ferula) sewed together; and the next best of basket-work (Columell. ix. 6. 1. Virg. Georg. iv. 33.), as in the example, which is taken from a Ro- man bas-relief, in which it is intro- duced as an emblem accompanying the figure of Hope. Montfauc. Anliq. Expl i. 204. ALVEA'RIUM (cr/ojwfo). A row of beehives, or place where beehives stand. Varro. R.R. iii. 16. 12. ALVE'OLUS. A diminutive of ALVEUS, generally ; but in a special sense of its own, a weaver's shuttle, which was used for conveying the threads of the woof (subtemen) through the warp (stamen). (Hieron. Ep. 130. ad Demetr. n. 15. ad torquenda subtemina in alveolis fusa volvantur.) From this passage, and the name by which the instrument was called, we may safely infer that it was a flat piece of wood rounded or pointed off at each end, and scooped into the shape of a boat, with a cavity in the 24 ALVEUS. centre, into which the pin of the bob- bin was inserted ; precisely like the figure here introduced which repre- sents a common kind of shuttle used in some parts of this and other coun- tries, but which corresponds so ex- actly with the words above quoted, , that it may be justly looked upon as an ancient model unchanged by time. There is a small hole in its side, through which the thread is drawn, and as the shuttle is thrown, the bobbin and pin revolve (fusa volvan- tur) and deliver out the thread. AL'VEUS. From alvus, the belly ; whence it is applied in several special senses to a variety of objects which possess a real or imaginary resem- blance in form to that part of the human body. 1. A long shallow wooden vessel answering to our notion of the words trough or tray, either for holding liquids or any other arti- cles ; like the figure in the cut, which is used by a carpenter for his tools and necessaries in a Pompeian painting. Plin. H. N. xvi. 22. Liv. i. 4. 2. A small boat or canoe used upon rivers, of very primitive con- struction, being hollowed out of a single tree ( Veil. ii. 107). Theexample here given represents a log canoe discovered in the bog which forms the bank of the old river at the junction of the Nen, at Horsey near Peterborough (Artis. Durobriv. pi. 57.), which, if not of Roman origin, is certainly of very great antiquity ; and, as it re- sembles in every respect the canoes represented on medals which com- memorate the foundation of Rome, it may be received as a model of the alveus. 3. The hull of a ship ; and thence used by the poets for the ship itself. Sail. Jug. 21. Propert in. 7. 16. 4. A particular kind of dish or small tray, in which certain sorts of fruit, such as olives, were handed round to the guests at table. Pet. Sat. Ixvi. 7. 5. A board used by the Romans for one of their games of skill. The circumstance of dice as well as coun- ters being mentioned in connection with the game played upon the alveus (Plin. xxxvii. 6. Val. Max. viii. 8. 2.), implies that that game was the ludus duodecim scriptorum, in which, as in our back-gammon, the move was de- cided by a throw of the dice. The alveus, therefore, must have resembled in some respects our back-gammon board, and been divided in the same manner as the abacus (see ABACUS, No. 2.), or if any difference really existed between the meaning of these two words, it is possible that the lat- ter term was strictly used when the board consisted of a marble slab ; the former when made like a wooden tray with raised edges, as indeed the ori- ginal notions of the two words of themselves indicate. 6. A hot-water bath, constructed in the floor of a bathing- room at the opposite extremity to that which contained the Labrum (Vitruv. v. 10. 4. Marquez, Case degli Antichi Ro- mani, § 317.), and furnished with a step at the bottom, which formed a seat for the bather when he descended into it. (Auctor. ad Herenn. iv. 10.) The illustration here given is a section of the alveus in the public baths at Pom- peii. The tinted part is the flooring of the room formed of brickwork, in which the flues through which the hot air circulated are observable, one under the bath itself, and four others under the general flooring. A is the alveus ; B the seat on which the bather sat (gradus, Vitr. /. c.) ; c a low para- ALVUS. AMENTUM. 25 pet wall forming the upper part of the bath (pluteus, Vitr. /. c.), from which two steps on the outside lead down to the floor of the room. The general plan of the apartment in which it is placed, and relative situation with respect to the other members of the same, will be understood by referring to the first wood-cut under BALINEAE, letters D, h, i. 7. From this the word is sometimes transferred in a more general sense to any sort of vessel or convenience for washing in. Ovid. Met. viii. 652. 8. A bee -hive. (Plin. H. N. vii. 13.) [ALVEARE.]! ALVUS, i. q. ALVEARE. Varro, Columell. Plin. AMANUENSIS (fcroypo^s). A slave or a freedman employed as a secretary or amanuensis, to write letters which his principal dictated aloud. Suet. Tit. 3. AM A/ZON CAW**). An. Amazon, a female warrior of Scythian race, whose armour consisted of a helmet, a shield of peculiar form called pelta, a bow and arrows, a sword, and double axe (bipennis), all of which acces- sories are shown in the illustration which is copied from a sarcophagus in the Museum of the Capitol at Rome. Amazons are also frequently re- presented on horse-back, in which The common derivation of the name from /uoCds, because they were said to have destroyed the right breast in order that it might not interfere with the use of their weapons, is a mere fiction invented by the grammarians ; for they are always represented in works of ancient art as perfect as other women. See the next cut. case they are armed with a spear, like the ordinary cavalry of other nations ; as in the example from a fictile vase. AMBIV'IUM (*A«f>o5os). Any road or street that leads round a place. Varro. ap. Non. s. Equisones, p. 450. Mercer. Aristoph. Fragm. 304. AM'BRICES. The cross laths (re- gulce) inserted between the rafters and tiles of a roof. (Festus. s. v.) AMBUBAF^. Female musicians and ballad singers of Syrian extrac- tion, who frequented the Circus and places of public resort, and sup- ported themselves by their music and prostitution. Suet. Nero, 27. Hor. Sat. i. 2. 1. Compare Juv. iii. 62, 65. AMEN'TO. To hurl a spear or javelin by the assistance of a thong (amentum) attached to it, which from the passages cited below appears to have been executed by inserting the fingers between the ends of the thong, and thus giving the missile a rapid rotatory motion before it was dis- charged ; but there is no known work of antiquity in which this action is represented. Lucan. vi. 221. Com- pare Ovid. Met. xii. 321, Cic. de Orat. i. 57. AMEN'TUM (<rb &HM r£>v &KOV- T-iwv, Beier. ad Cic. Amic. xxvii. 7.). A thong fastened to the shaft of a spear or javelin at the centre of gravity, in order to give it a greater i impetus when thrown. (Liv. xxxvii. E 26 AMITES. 41. Ovid. Met. xii. 221. Sil. Ital. iv. 14.) This illustration is taken from one of Sir W. Hamilton's fictile vases; but in the celebrated mosaic of Pom- peii, believed to represent the battle of Issus, a broken spear provided with a similar appendage is seen lying on the ground. 2. The thong or strap by which the soleae, crepidae, and similar kinds of shoes were fastened on the foot (Festus, s. t>.)» as in the example from a marble statue at Rome, where the amentum is shown by the broad flat thong which passes over the instep, and through the loops (ansae) affixed to the sides of the sole. Pliny men- tions a sitting statue of Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi, which was remarkable for having a mere sole under the foot without any thong to fasten it (soleis sine amento insignis, H.N. xxxiv. 14.) ; and similar omis- sions are not unfrequently observable in the Pompeian paintings, only to be accounted for by the caprice or inadvertence of the artists. AM'ITES. K pair of shafts, and par- ticularly applied to the two long poles, like those of a sedan-chair, which projected from the front and back of a BASTERNA, so as to form a double pair of shafts for the beasts which bore it. (Pallad. vii.2.3.) The illustra- tion represents a conveyance common in many parts of Europe during the middle ages, which, though not from any known Greek or Roman model, is introduced because it represents to the eye a precisely similar contrivance to what is mentioned by Palladius. Compare BASTERNA. 2. Strong poles of timber inserted horizontally between two upright posts, for the purpose of making a fence to confine cattle within their en- closures. ColumelLix. 1.3. 3. The two parallel rods upon which each side of a clap-net is stretched when laid flat upon the ground, and by which they are made to rise up and fall over the bird which has alighted between them ; from which it may also be applied to the net itself. Pallad. viii. 12. Hor. Epod. 2. 33. That the ancients were acquainted with clap-nets there is no doubt ; for they are represented in the Egyptian tombs, and constructed precisely upon the same principles as those now used by our bird-catchers. (Wilkinson's Ancient Egyptians, vol. iii. p. 37.) They are distinctly alluded to by Plautus (As. i. 3. 61— 72.) ; and by Ma- nilius (Astr. v. 371 — 373.), where he describes the various ways of taking birds: Aut nido capture suo, ramove sedentem, Pascentemve super sur- gentia ducere Una : in which passage the last words graphically depict the rising up of the clap-nets over the bird that is feeding on the seeds which the fowler has thrown down on the ground (area) between them, as de- scribed by Plautus. Lastly, Palla- dius (/. c.) says that an owl was em- ployed together with the amites, as a call bird, to which use it is still put by the modern Italians. All these cir- cumstances seem sufficient to autho- rise the interpretation given ; though it should not be concealed that Festus (s. u.) and the scholiast on Horace (I. c.) make the word synonymous with ancones, or varae, and explain it by the gloss furculae aucupatoriae, which is received by Doering, Orelli, and the commentators generally. But it is not probable that the Romans AMICTUS. would have invented three different words to express one and the same thing ; nor is it easy to conceive how birds could be caught by nets erected upon poles, which they could so easily fly over ; and the general analogy of the word, by a comparison with its other meanings, should not be neg- lected, both of which apply to poles placed in a horizontal and parallel po- sition, as distinct from those which are set upright, or stuck in the ground. AMIC'TUS. A general term ex- pressive of all the various articles of outer clothing, which were in fact wrapped round the person (from amicire), as distinguished from those of the inner apparel, which were drawn on (from induere) ; including, therefore, the Toga, Pallium, Sagum, Abolla, Paludamentum, &c. (Virg. JEn.v. 421. Quint, xi. 3. 137. Com- pare INDUTUS.) The two figures here represented, both from Etruscan AMPHIPROSTYLOS. 27 works, will explain distinctly what is meant by the term. The one stand- ing is just beginning to put on his amictus, a loose piece of cloth, one side of which is already passed from be- hind over the left arm and shoulder, whilst he is in the act of slipping his right elbow under the other side, in order to pull it up to the neck, so that both the ends will depend in front of the person in the manner represented by the left-hand figure, in the illus- tration to ANABOLIUM. He will then take up the right side, draw it across the chest, and turn the end over his left shoulder, so as completely to en- velope the upper part of the body in the manner seen on the sitting figure, who is then amictus pallio. Cic. de Orat. iii. 32. AMIC'ULUM. Diminutive of AMICTUS, and including all the smaller and finer kinds of outside wraps, both of male and female attire, which were disposed upon the person in the manner explained under the preceding word, such for instance as the Chlamys, Sagulum, and also the bridal Flammeum. Festus s. v. Co- rolla. AMPHIMAL'LUM (4*feirtAor> A very thick and coarse description of woollen cloth, having a long nap on both sides of the fabric, from which the name was taken ; it was used for carpetting, out- side coverings in very cold weather, and seems to have been, originally at y •' least, of foreign manufacture, for it was not known at Rome until the time of the elder Pliny (Plin. H. N. viii. 73.), and was probably intro- duced there from Germany, for it is represented in one of the trophies erected by the soldiers of Antoninus over the Germans on the column of that emperor ; from which the illus- tration is taken. It will be observed that the long nap is seen on the inside, where the edges turn over, the same as on the outside. AMPHIPROS'TYLOS o-TuAos). Ap- plied to temples, or to any other edifices, which have an open porch or portico projecting beyond the cella or main body of the building at both extremities, the front and rear, as shown on the accompanying ground-plan. Vitruv. iii. 2. 4, E 2 28 AMPHITAPUS. AMPH1THEATRUM. AMPHIT'APUS (dj^frairos). De- signates a particular kind of cloth, which, like the amphimallum, had a nap on both sides, but was of a finer texture (Athen. v. 26.), and probably of Oriental manufacture. There was certainly a distinction be- tween the two ; for amphimalla were not known at Rome till the time of Pliny, whereas amphitapa are men- tioned by Lucilius and Varro ap. Non. s. v. p 540. Mercer. AMPHITHEA'TRUM (a/^tfleo- rpov). An amphitheatre ; a build- ing originally constructed for the exhibition of gladiatorial combats, but occasionally used for other kinds of spectacles. The exterior was always formed by an oval wall, divided into one or more stories of arcades, according to the size of the building, and deco- rated with columns, pilasters, &c., according to the taste of the architect, as shown by the illustration intro- duced, which represents the external wall of an amphitheatre still remain- ing in a high state of preservation at Pola in Istria. The interior formed an elliptical cup or hollow (cavea), set round with seats for the spectators, rising in steps one above the other, and was distributed into the following prin- cipal parts : the arena, a flat and oval space at the bottom, and in the centre of the edifice, where the combatants fought ; the podium, an elevated gallery immediately encircling the arena, reserved for the senators and persons of distinction ; gradus, the circles of seats occupied by the public, which, when the building was lofty, were divided into two or more flights, termed maeniana, by broad land- ing places (praecinctiones) and raised walls (baltei) ; and, vertically, into compartments in the form of an in- verted triangle or wedge (cunei) by a number of stair-cases (sca/<e), which communicated with the avenues of ingress and egress (vomitorid) within the shell of the building. On the top of all was a covered gallery, ap- propriated to the women. All of these points are discernible in the following illustration, which repre- sents the interior of the amphitheatre at Pompeii in its existing state ; but, as the drawing is necessarily made upon a very reduced scale, and is indistinct in parts from the dilapi- dations it has suffered, the whole plan and construction of these edifices will be better understood by comparing it with the plan subjoined in the fol- lowing page, which is a restored sec- tion, and elevation of a portion of the AMPITITHEATRUM. AMPHORA. 29 amphitheatre at Pola, by the Canonico, Pietro Stancovich (Anfiteatro di Pola, tab. 4.), in which all the parts are detailed more perfectly. The company entered the theatre through the arches on the ground-floor at the left hand side of the engraving. A is the podium, which is approached by a short staircase, springing from the third or inner corridor, in the centre of the cut ; it is raised above the arena by a blank wall, surmounted by a balustrade, under which is seen one of the doorways through which the wild beasts or combatants emerged upon the arena. The staircase, which commences immediately from the ground entrance, leads directly to the first mcenianum (1), which the spectator entered through the door- ways (vomitoria) B, and descended the flights of stairs which divide the rows of seats between them into a wedge-shaped compartment (cuneus}, until he came to the particular row where his seat was reserved. The high blank wall into which the en- trance (B) opens, is the balteus, and its object was to separate the different mceniana, and prevent the classes who were only entitled to a seat in the upper ones from descend- ing into those below. A branch staircase, diverging to the left, leads up to the corridor formed by the arcades of the outer wall ; from whence it turns to the right, and con- ducts to the second mcenianum (2), which is entered, and distributed in the same way as the lower one, and separated from the one above by another balteus (c). Other stair- cases, but which cannot be shown on one section, conduct in like manner to the third mcenianum (3) and to the covered gallery for the women above (D). The three solid arches in the centre of the engraving, con- structed in the main brickwork of the building, form a succession of cor- ridors encircling the whole edifice, from which the different staircases spring, while at the same time they support the seats of the cavea, and the flights of stairs by which the company entered or left the amphi- theatre. AM'PHOR A (aV/>opefo). A large earthenware vessel, with a handle on each side of its neck, and terminating in a point at bottom, so that it would stand upright if planted in the ground, or remain stationary if merely leaned against a wall ; chiefly used for containing wine in store, for which the smallness of its dia- meter, as compared with the height, shows it was invented, in order to 30 AMPULLA. AMUSSIUM. contain a large quantity, and only occupy a small space. The illus- tration represents two amphorae of the most usual form, the one stuck in the ground, and the other leaning against a wall, as they were found at Pompeii, and also shows the manner in which they were transported from place to place, from a terra-cotta bas- relief, which formed the sign of a wine shop in the same town. AMPUL'LA. A bottle; like our own word, a general term for any form or material, but more accurately for a vessel made of glass, with a narrow neck and swelling body, like a bladder ; whence the word is used figuratively to signify turgid or inflated language. (Hor. A P. 97.) The illus- tration affords an example of various originals excavated at Rome. 2. Ampulla olearia. An oil flask, such as was used for carrying oil to the baths for pouring over the strigil to prevent it from scraping too sharply, and for other general purposes. It is described by Apu- leius (Flor. ii. 9. 2.), exactly as re- presented in the cut, from an original formerly in the possession of Lorenzo Pignori (De Serv. p. 84.), as shaped like a lentil, with a narrow neck and flattish sides, lenticular i forma, tereti ambitu, pressula rotunditate. 3. Ampulla rubida. A flask co- vered with leather, like our hunting flasks, and used by persons on a jour- ney to hold wine, vinegar, or oil (Plaut. Stick, ii. 1. 77. Festus. s. v. Kubida). AMPULLA'RIUS. One who fol- lowed the trade of covering glass bottles with leather. Plaut. Hud. iii. 4. 51. AMUS'SIS. An instrument em- ployed by masons and builders for testing the evenness, accuracy, and regularity of their work, as the rule, the square, and the plummet is by carpenters. The exact meaning is somewhat doubtful; for, from the different passages where the word occurs, it appears to have been equally applied to a level for testing the uniform evenness in the surface of a wall or course of masonry (Fes- tus. s. v. Amussim and Examussim. Varro. ap. Non. s. v. Examussim, p. 5. Mercer) ; the square for proving a right angle (Auson. Edyll xvi. 10.) ; and the line and plummet for pre- serving an exact perpendicular (Sisenna ap. Charis. ii. p. 178.); but in each case the same general use and notion is preserved, that in whatever way applied, it is always for the purpose of proving that the work is accurately and regularly done: whence the expression adamussim or examussim is equivalent to accurately, i. e. according to line and rule. Macrob. Sat. i. 4. Aul. Gell. i. 4. 1. AMUSSITA'TUS. Made with ac- curacy and p^cision, as tested by the instrument amussis ; hence, figu- ratively, in Plautus (Mil. iii. 1. 37.), accurate, precise. AMUS'SIUM. A marble slab, the surface of which was exactly levelled, and proved by the instrument amussis, and upon which the direction of the winds was marked. It was then ANABATHRUM. ANACLINTERIUM. 31 fixed against the external wall of a house, as a dial, to show the point from which the wind blew. Vitruv. i. 6. 6. Marini, ad I ANABATH'RUM (dvteatipov). Generally any row of seats rising one above another like a flight of stairs, as was the usual arrangement in all buildings constructed for the accommo- dation of a numerous company, such as the theatres, Circus, &c. (See the illustrations under AMPHITHEATRUM.) But the more accurate and strict meaning of the word implies some- thing more definite ; viz. a temporary set of wooden seats, constructed upon the same principle, but which were hired for any special occasion, as a concert, recitation, &c., and placed round the sides of the room for the accommodation of a numerous audi- ence, in the same manner as is still common at the present day for a similar purpose. Juv. Sat vii. 46. A N A BO L' I U M (toa86*auov). Properly a Greek word, which has, therefore, a more especial reference to the customs of that people ; though, being a general term, it might be equally well applied to the Romans, when descriptive of similar habits. (Inscript. ap. Don. cl. 1. n. 91.) It is derived from the Greek ava§d\\(a, " to cast up," and used to designate a particular wearing the pallium, or any similar males and females, when the end was thrown up so as to cover the shoulder (Isidor. Orig. xix. 25. 7.)» in the manner represented by the female figure of the preceding en- graving, which is taken from a statue of the Villa Pamfili at Rome. The male figure, from a fictile vase, shows the simplest mode of arrange- ment; and is introduced here only for the purpose of explaining more clearly how the other was produced ; viz. by taking up the side which hangs down behind the right arm, passing it across the breast, and then throwing it over the top of the left shoulder, so that the end will hang down behind, instead of in front, both the arms be covered, and the whole person more completely protected from the weather. In such an arrangement, the brooch at the throat would be first unclasped, to make the drapery set closer, and the whole blanket drawn more on to the right side than in our figure, in order to aflbrd a greater length for casting over the shoulder. It may be re- marked that the people of Italy adjust their cloaks at the present day in both of these ways, accordingly as the external temperature is more or less inclement. ANACLINTE'RIUM (waKXiv- rflpiov). The head-board of a sofa or sleeping couch, upon which the squab and pillow for the support of object of the outward attire, both of Meleager. the head rested. (Spart. Ael. Ver. 5.) The example is from a bas-relief at Rome, which represents the death of 32 ANADEMA. ANCILE. ANADE'MA (e^dS^a). A band for the head; but more particularly one which was used as a mere orna- ment, such as those worn by women and young persons of the male sex amongst the Greeks, in contradis- tinction to the diadema, vitta, or other head-bands, which were the insignia of regal, religious, or honorary dis- tinctions. (Eur. Hippol. 83. Lucret. iv. 1126. Paul. Dig. 34. 2. 27.) The example is from a Pompeian painting. ANAGLYP'TA or ANAG'LY- PHA (avdy\vTTTa, avdy\v<t>a). Objects cast in low relief; a bas-relief in marble, metal, ivory, &c. Mart. iv. 39. Plin. H.N. xxxiii. 49. ANAGNOS'TES (fcwywS<rnjf> A slave, whose duty it was to read aloud to his master in his study, or to the guests at table. (Cic. Att. i. 12. Ne- pos, Att. 14. Aul. Gell. iii. 19.) Also a person who read out passages from the favourite poets in the theatre or public places (Aul. Gell. xviii. 5. 1.), like the recitatori, or spiegatori of modern Naples. ANALEM7MA (cu/dAT^a). Pro- perly a Greek word, used to designate any thing which serves as an under- prop ; and especially a wall, pier, or buttress constituting the substructure of a building (Dion. Hal. iii. 69.), for which the proper Latin term is Sub- structio. The Romans adopted it to signify the pedestal upon which a sun- dial was erected, often seen in pictures and bas- reliefs as a square pillar, or short column ( Winkelm. Mon. Ant. Ined. No. 157. 185.); but Vitruvius, who uses the word, applies it incor- rectly to the dial itself. (Vitruv. ix. 1.1. Schneider ad /.) In the illus- tration, copied from a silver cup found at Porto d'Anzio, only a portion of the analemma is drawn; but that is sufficient to show what is meant : the whole consists of a square pilaster about five feet high, with a base at the bottom corresponding with the cornice at the top. ANANCjE'UM. A vessel for holding liquids (Varro. ap. Non. s. v. Creterra, p. 547. Mercer), but of what precise character is very uncertain. It is usually interpreted a wine cup of great capacity, employed in drink- ing bouts, which it was compul- sory to empty at a draught, upon the authority of Plautus (Rud. ii. 3. 33.) ; but the reading of the passage is doubtful. Weise has avayKaiws. ANATHE'MA (&m%to). Pro- perly a Greek word, which includes any thing that is set up as a votive offering in a temple, such as a tripod, statue, &c., used in a Latin form by Prudent. Psychom. 540. ANCPLE (rb ayKvXiov). The sa- cred shield found, according to tra- dition, in the palace of Nu- ma, and supposed to have fallen from heaven. Accord- ing to the grammarians, it was made of bronze, and of an oblong oval shape, but with a semicircular incava- tion on each side, similar to that on the top of the pelta (Varro, L. L. vii. 43. Festus. s. v. Mamur."), as seen in the illustration from a medal of Augustus, which also has a representation of the Salian apex by its side. The name ancile is evi- dently formed from the Greek nynitX^ the bend of the arm, which the gram- marians above cited refer to the in- cision on the sides of the shield ; but it is clearly referable to the semi- circular handle (compare ANSA and ANSATUS), affixed to the top for the purpose of suspending it on the rod by which it was carried through ANCLABRIS. ANCON. 33 the city by the Salii, as seen in the annexed woodcut from an en- graved gem, in which the curvature of the sides is much less pronounced, and the general form more consonant with the language of Ovid (Fast. iii. 377.): Idque ancile vocat, quod ab omni parte recisum est ; Quaque notes oculis, angulus omnis abest, which can scarcely be taken as a description of the figure on the medal of Augustus ; a figure which it is probable was invented by the designer of the medal, in conformity with the received derivation of the Roman antiquaries; or perhaps the effects of age have modified the form, and made the indentures appear more prominent and decisive than they were in its early state. ANCL A'BRIS. A small table made use of as an altar at the sacrifice, upon which the sacrificial implements were placed, as well as the entrails of the victim, for the inspection of the di- viners. (Festus s. v. Id. s. Escarice.} The example represents a small bronze table found at Pompeii, which from its diminutive size, and the hol- low form of its top, is believed to have been employed in the manner stated. It is rather more than eight inches high, rather less than eight long, and about seven wide. In one of the Pompeian paintings a priest is represented carrying one of these tables to the sacrifice. Pitture di Er- colan. iv. tav. 1. ANCON (kyict&v). Literally an el- bow ; i. e. the bend or angle formed by the two bones of the arm when bent at the elbow joint ; from this it is transferred to several other things which partake of the same form, or have a resemblance to it ; and, as this flexure consists of two separate parts or sides, the word is generally applied in the plural. 1. The arms or branches of a stone-mason's or carpenter's square (worma), which is employed in measuring right angles ; and was formed of two flat rules mitred together like an elbow joint. (Vitruv. iii. 5. 14.) The example represents a square thus formed, which is carved upon a sepulchral marble amongst many other implements of a carpenter's trade. Fabretti. ^9. 73. 2. (Trapwris — ovs ry virepOvpcp. In- script. in Elgin collection of Mus. Brit.) The trusses or consoles which support an ornamental cornice Qiyper- thyruni) over a doorway ; which are usually made in the form of the letter S, and are affixed under each ex- tremity of the cornice, at right angles with it. (Vitruv. iv. 6. 4.) The small figure on the left hand of the engrav- ing gives a side view of one of these consoles, from the temple of the " Dio Redicolo," as it is now called, near Rome ; the other represents the cor- nice over the doorway to the temple of Hercules, at Cora, and gives a front view of the ancones depending on each side of the cornice. 34 ANCON. ANDABAT^E. 3. Cramps of bronze or iron em- ployed in building, for connecting together large blocks, or courses of masonry. (Vitruv. x. 13. 21.) These were used instead of mortar, in all structures of great size, and account for the number of holes observable in the masonry of many ancient build- ings, from which the cramps have been removed during the middle ages in order to get possession of the metal. The top figure in the illustration shows the form of a bronze ancon from the Coliseum, and the lower one the manner in which it was applied to cramp together two blocks of stone in the same edifice. 4. The arms of an arm-chair, which are attached to the uprights forming the back, and thus with them constitute a right angle like the carpenter's square. (Coel. Aur. Tard. ii. I.) The illustration is copied from a marble chair in a bas-relief formerly in the palace of the Cardinal Mazzarini at Rome. 5. The prongs or forks at the end of the props (yar&\ which the an- cient sportsmen used to hang v their nets upon. (Grat. Cyneg. 87.) \J These were stuck by their sharp ends into the ground, and at short intervals from one another, around any spot which it was wished to enclose, and the nets then hung upon the fork. Com- pare VARA, where the manner of setting up the net is shown. 6. A particular kind of bottle or vessel for holding wine used in the Roman taverns (Paul. Dig. 33. 7. 13.), and which, from its denomination, is not unreasonably supposed to have been made with a bent neck, some- thing like a retort. An example alone is wanting to confirm the con- jecture. AN' COR A (ajKvpa). An anchor. The ancient anchors were sometimes made with only one arm or fluke, but the most perfect kinds had two, made of iron, and in form closely resembled those still in use. They were usually carried over the bows of the vessel (Virg. Aen. iii. 277.), as in the ex- ample from Trajan's Column ; but large ships had two, and sometimes more, according to their size. Athen. v.43. ANCORA'LE. The cable of an anchor, Liv. xxii. 19. Id. xxxvii. 30. See the preceding woodcut. 2. The buoy-rope. (Plin. H. N. xvi. 16.) The buoy itself (ff-n^ov ayitvpas. Paus. viii. 12. 1.) was made of cork, and was attached by means of the ancorale to a ring, which is seen at the bottom of the shank in the pre- ceding illustration. While the buoy indicated the spot where the anchor lay, the rope which held it also served to draw the fluke out of the ground, when the anchor had to be raised. ANDAB'AT^E. A class of gla- diators who fought hoodwinked, or with a close helmet which had no opening in the vizor to see through. (Hieron. adv. Jov. i. 36. Cic. Fam. vii. 10, but here the reading is doubt- ful.) According to Turnebus (Ad- vers. ii. 10.) they exhibited in the Circus after the races in a sort of lu- dicrous contest, both the driver and Andabata being blindfolded. ANDKON. ANGU1S. 35 ANDRON (Mp&v). Properly speaking a Greek word, and therefore in its strict sense having reference to the customs of that nation. It de- signates the first of the two principal divisions into which the ground-plan of a Greek house was distributed, ap- propriated to the sole and exclusive use of the male portion of the esta- blishment. (Vitruv. vi. 7. 4. Festus, s. r.) It consisted of an open court surrounded by colonnades (marked c on the plan), round which were arranged the various sets of chambers required for the service of the proprietor and his dependants (Nos. 1 to 9), and was separated from the other division containing the women's apartments by a passage and door (marked d) between the two. 2. The Latin writers applied the word in a very different sense, to de- signate a mere passage which di- vides one house, or one part of the same house, from another; as for instance, the passage between the ex- ternal wall of a house and garden ad- joining (Plin. Ep. ii. 17. 22.) ; and the Roman architects made use of the same term most inaccurately to de- signate the corridor in a Greek house, which separated the men's and wo- men's apartments from one another (marked d in the preceding plan), but for which the proper name was Mesaulce. ANDRONI'TIS (toSpuriru). Sy- nonymous with ANDRON, No. 1. ANGIPORTUS or ANGIPOR- TUM ((TTcvcoWs). A narrow or back street, whether in the nature of a court which had no thoroughfare (Terent. Adelph. iv. 2. 40.), and which was then properly termed fun - dula ; or merely a small back street leading from any of the principal ones to the less frequented parts of the city. (Hor. Carm. i. 25. 10. Plaut. Pseud, iv. 2. 6.) These back streets in Pompeii are so narrow that a person can step across them from kirb stone to kirb stone at one stride. ANGUIL'LA. A whip made of eel-skin, which was used by the Roman schoolmasters to punish their scholars, (Plin. H. N. ix. 39. Isidor. Orig. v. 27. 15.) The illustration is copied from a painting at Hercu- laneum, which represents the interior of a school-room. ANGCJIS. 1. A serpent, or snake, which amongst the Romans was em- ployed as a symbolical representation of the genius loci, or presiding spirit of a place. (Serv. ad Virg. Mn. v. F 2 ANGUSTICLAVIUS. ANSA. 85. ) Figures of serpents were there- fore painted against a wall, in the same way as the cross is in modern Italy, to deter the public from con- taminating the spot, and answered the same purpose as our injunction " Commit no nuisance." Pers. Sat. i. 113. These signs are frequently met with in the houses of Pompeii, in kitchens, bake- houses, and such places, where cleanli- ness is particu- larly desirable ; and generally with an altar between them, as seen in the annexed illustration, which was co- pied by the writer from one of the corridors leading into the Thermae of Trajan at Rome. It, is painted in fresco, and has the following inscrip- tion underneath : IOVEM ET JDNONEM ET DUODECIM DEOS IRATOS HABEAT QUISQUIS HIC MINXERIT AUT CACARIT. 2. A military ensign made in imi- tation of the figure of a serpent, and which was adopted in the Roman armies for the ensign of a co- hort. (Claud. inRu- fin.il 5. 177. Sidon. A poll. 5. 40.) It was more common- ly termed DRACO, under which name the materials, cha- racter, and uses are more fully de- scribed. The illustration is copied from the Column of Trajan. ANGUSTICLA'VIUS. One who is entitled to wear upon his tunic the ornament called clavus anguatus, a distinctive badge of the equestrian order. Suet. Otho, 10. [CLAVCS.] ANQUI'NA (a7/c<nVa). The collar by which the yard-arm of a vessel is fastened to the mast, technically called the " truss" by our sailors. Isidor. Orig. xix. 4. 7. Helvius Cinna ap. Isidor. I. c. In the illustration, which is copied from a fictile lamp, the anquina ap- pears as a semicircular ring, or band of wood, or of metal, but it was usually made of rope. It received its appellation from the primary sense of the Greek word, which means a bent arm. The ayKoiva StirA^, which is spoken of amongst the Greeks as employed for vessels of a large class, such as Quadriremes, &c., does not mean that the yard was fitted with two trusses, but that the truss was made of a double thickness of rope to bear the wear and tear proportional to the size of the yard. ANSA (&JKOS, ay/c^). That by which we take hold of any thing ; whence it is specially applied, in the same way as our own word "handle," to many objects which differ essen- tially from one another in form and character, though all are employed for the same general purpose, as a handle to hold by. Of these the most important are the following : — 1. (Aog??— TO dira). The handle of any vessel for containing liquids, as cups, jugs, amphorae, &c. These of course varied in form, according to the taste of the artist who de- signed them, and are in- differently placed upon the neck, one or both sides, or from top to bottom of the vessel, as best suited the beauty of the whole out- line, of which the ancient artists always made them a component part, so as not to have the appearance of being stuck on afterwards, as mere accessories or afterthoughts. The illustration is taken from a bronze jug found at Pompeii, with a single ANSA. ANSATUS. 37 handle, of a very beautiful, though simple character ; but a great variety of other forms will be shown in the course of the work. Cato, JR. It. 113. Virg. Eel iii. 45. Ov. Her. xiv. 252. Id. Met. viii. 653. 2. Ansa ostii (eTnoTrao-Hjp, Kopuvn, ^oTTTpoi/). The handle of a door by which it is pulled open or shut to, and which also served as a knocker. (Pet. Sat. 96. 1.) These are fre- quently represented as simple rings attached to a hold-fast ; in other cases they are more elaborately designed and ornamented, as in the illustration an- nexed, which is copied from an original of bronze, and formerly belonged to the door of a house at Pompeii. 3. Ansa crepidce (ay/wAy. The loop or eye on the side leather of the Greek shoe, called crepida, through which the thong or lace was passed and crossed over the instep to bind it on the foot. (Tibull. i. 8. 14.) There were the same number of these on each side of the shoe, as may be collected from the well-known story of Apelles, who was reproved by a cobbler for having omitted one of the ansce in a work which he had exposed to public view. (Plin. H.N. xxxv. 36. § 12.) The form and character is clearly seen in the illustration, from a marble foot of Greek sculpture. 4. Ansa statera. The eye or handle it is suspended, and which formed its centre of libration, being fixed to the shortest half of the beam, nearest the end on which the scale or object to be weighed was attached. (Vitruv. x. 3, 4. ) The illustration is copied from a bronze steel-yard found at Pompeii. 5. Ansa gubernaculi (ofa|). The handle of a rudder (Vitruv. x. 3. 5. ), which was the top of the rudder pole (A A in the illustration), which the helmsman held with both his hands, when the rudder consisted of a mere oar without any tiller (^c/auws), as in the right-hand cut. But in on the top of a steel-yard, by which large vessels, when the addition of a tiller was necessary, he placed one hand on the ansa (at A, left-hand cut), and the other on the clavus (B), which enabled him to move his helm with much greater facility. The right-hand figure is copied from the Column of Trajan ; the left-hand one from a painting at Pompeii. 6. Ansa ferrea. An iron cramp by which the large blocks of stone were fastened together in ancient buildings, when mortar was not used. Vitruv. ii. 8. 4. same as ANCON (6), where an illustration is given. ANSA'TUS. Furnished with a handle or handles, as explained in the preceding word. 2. Ansata hasta, Ansatum telum (ayKv\d)T6s, ayKv\r]T6v, fj.taa.-yitvXov). A spear or javelin, which was furnished with a semicircular rest for the hand, attached like a handle to the shaft, These handles were not permanent fixtures, but were put on to their 38 ANSULA. ANTECESSORES. weapons by the soldiers before going into battle, or upon an emergency, as occasion required (Plutarch. 2. p. 180. C. ed. Xylandr. Compare Xen. Anab. iv. 2. 28.), and they served a double purpose, to assist in hurling them, when employed as missiles — ansatas mittunt de turribus hastas (Ennius ap. Non. s. v. Ansatce, p. 556.) ; or as a stay for the hand which gave force to the thrust when used at close quar- ters, ansatis concurrunt telis (Ennius, ap. Macrob. Sat. vi. 1.). Both of these uses are indicated by the illus- tration, copied from a painting on the walls of a warrior's tomb at Psestum (Nicolai, Antichita di Pesto, tav. vi.) ; and which is valuable for the autho- rity it affords respecting the true meaning of a word, hitherto only guessed at, or misunderstood. But this picture proves the characteristic difference between the ansa and amentum of a javelin ; the latter, as is well known, being a mere thong ; the former, as here shown, and in ac- cordance with the primary and other notions of the word, both in Latin and Greek, a handle either of an angular or curved form attached to some other object. AN'SULA. Diminutive of ANSA ; applied in all the senses illustrated under that word. Valerius Maximus (viii. 12. 3.), in relating the story about Apelles and the cobbler, uses the diminutive ansulce instead of ansce employed by Pliny (H.N. xxxv. 36. § 12.) ; and in the illustration to ANSA (3) it will be observed that there are in reality a number of smaller loop-holes under the larger ones. That wood-cut will, therefore, afford an example both of the ansa and ansula strictly taken. ANT^E (7rapa<rTa5es). Square pilasters (Non. s. v. p. 30.), which are used as a termi- nation to the side walls of a temple, when those side walls are projected beyond the face of the cella, or main body of the building. (Vitruv. iv. 4. 1.) As one of these pilasters is re- quired on each side to form a cor- responding support, the word is always used in the plural ; and thus a temple is said to be in antis or Iv irapaffrdo-t (Vitruv. iii. 2. 2.), when the porch is formed by the projection of the side walls, terminated, as de- scribed, by two square pilasters, which have two columns between them. ANTA'RIUS. Funes antarii ; ropes employed in the erection of a mast, column, or any other object of great weight and height. (Vitruv. x. 2. 3.) They were fastened to the head of the column, and to the ground on each side of it at proper distances, in order to keep it steady, and prevent its inclining either way, whilst being erected. ANTEAM'BULO. A slave whose duty it was to precede the lectica of his master or mistress, and clear the way through a crowd (Suet. Vesp. 2.) ; hence the same name is also applied to the freedman or client who performed the obsequious office of walking before his patron when he went abroad. Mart. Ep. ii. 18. ANTECESSO'RES. Light ca- valry soldiers who formed the ad- vanced guard of an army on the march ; they cleared the way for the main body, and selected the positions ANTECURSORES. ANTENNA. 39 for a halt or a camp. Hirt. Bell. Afr. 12. Suet. Vit. 17. ANTECURSO'RES. Same as ANTECESSORES. Cses. Bell. Civ. 1. 16. ANTEFIX'A. Ornaments in terra- cotta, invented by the Etruscan architects, from whom they were j borrowed by the Romans, and used to decorate various parts of an edifice externally as well as internally, to cover a flat surface, or conceal the junctures between two blocks of masonry, or to make an ornamental finish to any rough or inelegant con- j tour. Hence the name is specially ! applied to the following distinct objects. 1. Long flat slabs of terra-cotta with designs in relief, which were design, and most frequently formed by the mask of a lion's head, in allusion to the inundation of the Nile, which takes place when the sun is in the sign of Leo. The illus- tration is taken from an original found at Rome, which shows a round hole in the mouth, where a leaden tube was inserted to form a spout for the discharge of the water. 3. Upright ornaments placed along the top of an entablature, above the nailed along the whole surface of a frieze (zophorus\ in order to enrich the entablature, and give to the part a finished and ornamental effect. The Greek artists sculptured the marble itself, and held such a contrivance for concealing defects in supreme contempt. (Liv. xxxiv. 4.) The il- lustration represents an original ante- fix found at Rome, which had once been used for the purpose described. The holes for the nails by which it was fastened up are perceivable on the surface. 2. Ornaments of the same material which were affixed to the cornice of an entablature, for the purpose of affording a vent for the rain water to discharge itself from the roof into the street. (Fest. s. y.) They represent the "gurgoils" of Gothic archi- tecture, but are of a more simple upper member of the cornice, to con- ceal the ends of the ridge tiles (im- brices), and the juncture of the flat ones. The illustration represents a front and side view of two originals found at Rome ; the upper figure, in the centre, shows the ends of the tiles as they appear without the antefix, the one beneath it with the antefixes attached ; the right-hand figure also shows the shoulder at the back, which was inserted under the imbrex, to fix it up ; and the left-hand one, which has an image of Victory on its face, thus presents a graphic commentary to the passage of Livy (xxvi. 23.), where he mentions that the statue of Victory on the top of the temple of Concord, fell down, and was caught by the Victories in the antefixes : Victoria, quce in culmine erat, fulmine icta decussctque, ad Victorias, quce in antefixis erant, hcesit, &c. ANTEN'NA (MKpiov). The yard-arm of a ship ; which was made of a single piece of fir when the vessel was a small one, but of two pieces braced together for those of a larger size. Hence the word is often met with in the plural number, while the sail attached to it is at the same time expressed by the singular — an- tennis totum subnectite velum (Ovid, Met. xi. 483.). Small yards of a single piece are represented in several 40 ANTEPAGMENTUM. ANTERIDES. of the wood-cuts, illustrative of ancient shipping in different parts of this work ; and the yard introduced at p. 36. s. v. ANQUINA shows distinctly the manner in which the two pieces were joined together for the larger kinds. The yard itself is taken from a bas-relief on a tomb at Pompeii ; the details of the sail and truss by which it is fixed to the mast, from two terra-cotta lamps of Bartoli. ANTEPAGMEN'TUM. The jamb of a door-case ; especially so termed when the jamb was made with an ornamental moulding which projected before the upright pillar (scapus cardinalis) that formed the pivot on which the door turned, and concealed it entirely from view on the outside. Vitruv. iv. 6. Festus, s. v. Cato. R. E. xiv. 4. This will be readily understood by the illustration, which represents an elevation and ground-plan of the ancient door and door-case still re- maining to the church of S. Theodore at Rome, formerly the temple of Remus. On the right side the ante- pagmentum is cut away in order to expose the shaft and socket, while the left side and the ground-plan show the manner in which those parts were concealed by the antepagmentum, and explain the real meaning of the word. It will also be observed that a door so constructed could only open inwards ; the style of the door, to which the pivot was affixed, and the socket in which it turned, being placed behind a projecting part of the jamb, which was hollowed to re- ceive it, and thus formed a sort of frame lapping over the edges of the door on the outside, so as to exclude the external air from the interior. 2. Antepagmentum superius. Vitruv. iv. 6. 1. The lintel of a door-case ; especially when the door opened inwards, and the moulding of the lintel lapped over its upper edge, in the same manner as just described with respect to the jambs on the sides, a construction commonly adopted in the houses at Pompeii, where the doors are usually placed entirely behind the door case. ANTEPILA'NI. The men who, in the battle array of the Roman legion, were drawn up before the Pilani or Triarii, who were posted in the third line. Thus it is a general term, comprising the soldiers of the two first lines, and including both the Hastati and Principes, as they were respectively called. Liv. viii. 8. ANTE' RIDES (epetV^aro). But- tresses built up against the outside of a wall to support it if weak (Vitruv. vi. 8. 6.), seldom employed by the Greek or Roman architects, except to strengthen a foundation. The illustration shows the construction of the Cloaca Maxima at Rome, with external buttresses on each side of the masonry, as seen in an excavation superintended by Piranesi. These buttresses, however, are formed of a different stone from the rest of the work, and were not part of the original ANTESIGNANI. ANTLIA. 41 construction, but may be regarded as vestiges of the repairs which the sewers underwent upon the occasion alluded to by Dionysius (iii. 67.), when a sum of not less than 200,000/. of our money was laid out upon them. ANTESIGNA'NI. A body of the boldest and best men of the legion, who were stationed imme- diately before the standards to pre- vent their being captured by the enemy. Cses. B.C. i. 57. Liv. xxii. 5. Id. ix. 39. ANTES'TOR. To summon a per- son, or ask him to become witness that a defendant refuses to come into court. On such occasions the plaintiff asked any of the bystanders to bear witness of the defendant's contempt, by the words licet antestari ; upon re- ceiving his assent, he touched the ear of his witness, then seized upon the person of his opponent, and dragged him forcibly into the court. Plaut. Pers. iv. 9. 10. Hor. Sat. i. 9. 78. Plin. H. N. xi. 103. ANTLE. The ringlets of a woman's head of hair, which hang down to the ears from the temples (Festus, s.v. Isidor. Orig. xix. 31. 8.), and likewise the side locks of males, when studiously arranged in the same way from the temples down the sides of the face (Apul. Flor. i. 3. 3.) ; as in the example, from a small bronze figure found at Herculaneum. The illustration to ANADEMA shows these ringlets as worn by females, from a Pompeian painting. ANTILE'NA. A breast strap attached to the pack saddles of a beast of burden, in order to keep the saddle from sliding back- wards. (Isidor. Orig. xx. 16.) It was fastened to the front of the saddle on both sides, and passed across the chest of the animal, as in the illustration from a painting at Herculaneum ; and was a necessary appendage to the pack- saddle in all mountainous countries, where the ascents are steep. ANTIQUA'RIUS. A term used under the empire, and distinct from Librarius, to designate a person em- ployed in copying old books (Isidor. Orig. vi. 14. 1.), and who wrote in the old uncial character after the running letters had come into general use. Becker, Gallus. i. p. 164. Transl. ANTLIA (dvrXta). A pump, or other machine for raising water, in- cluding all the various contrivances adopted by the ancients for that pur- pose ; and not indicating any par- ticular construction ; the word being used by Martial (Ep. ix. 19. 4.) to designate the pole and bucket ; by Suetonius (Tib. 51.), the water tread- wheel ; and by - Callixenus (op. Athen. v. 43.), the Archimedean screw. The different machines thus comprised under the general term Antlia are described and illustrated under their own specific names, and are as follows : — 1. ROTA AQUARIA ; 2. TYMPANUM ; 3. TOLLENO ; 4. GIR- G 42 ANULARIUS. ANULUS. GILLUS; 5. CTESIBICA MACHINA and SIPHO ; 6. COCHLEA. ANULA'RIUS and ANNUL A'- RIUS. One who follows the trade of making rings. (Cic, Acad. ii. 46.) The ring makers formed a distinct collegium or company at Rome. In- script. ap. Murat. 2015. 5. ANULA'TUS and ANNULA'- TUS. In general, having or being furnished with rings ; whence 1. Anulati pedes, having fetters on the feet, in the manner of the farming slaves amongst the Romans, who worked in chains (Apul. Met. ix. p. 184.), as in the example, from an engraved gem. 2. Anulatoe aures. Ears with rings in them (Plaut. Pcen. v. 2. 20.), as in the example, from a Pompeian painting. A'NULUS or AN'NULUS (5a«- rvAios, fftypayis). A ring for the finger ; originally made of iron, and used as a signet for sealing. Subsequently, however, golden rings were adopted instead of iron, but the use of that metal at Rome was restricted to the senators, chief magistrates, and equites. (Plin. H.N. xxxiii. 4.) The example represents an original from the Dactyliotheca of Gorlaeus. The signet ring was worn on the fourth finger of the left hand both by the Greeks and Ro- mans (Aul. Gell. x. 10.) ; see the right-hand figure in the cut, which represents the hand of Jupiter, from a Pompeian painting ; and thence the expression, sedere ad anulos alicui (Bum. Paneg. ad Const. 15.), means to sit on the right hand of any one. But under the empire the fashion of wearing rings of various kinds, and degrees of value, as mere ornaments, became prevalent amongst all classes, and were worn on different fingers of both hands, as well as several at a time (Mart. Ep. v. 61. Id. xi. 59.); see the left-hand figure from a Pompeian painting, which shows a female hand with three rings, two on the fourth, and one on the little finger. 2. Anulus bigemmis. A ring which has two precious stones set in it. (Valerian, in Epist. ap. Trebell. Claud. 14.) The illustra- tion exhibits an original from the Dactyliotheca of Gorlaeus (Part i. No. 68) with two engraved gems set in it ; one, a large signet, with the figure of Mars, and the other a smaller one, with a dove and myrtle branch. 3. Anulus velaris. A curtain ring, made like our own, to run upon a rod for the purpose of drawing or withdrawing the curtain. Amongst the Romans these rings were usually made of hard wood. (Plin. H.N. xiii. 18.) In a house excavated at Herculaneum in 1828 (an ele- vation of which is given as an illus- tration to the article DOMUS), the iron rods upon which they ran be- ANULUS, APHRACTUS. 43 tween the columns of the Atrium were found entire, and similarly placed to the example annexed, which is from a miniature of the Vatican Virgil, and exem- plifies their object and use, though from the minute- ness of the design not discernible upon the rod. 4. A ring set round the circle of a boy's hoop, for the purpose of creating a jing- ling noise as the hoop performed its revolutions. (Mart. Epigr. xiv. 169.) Several of these were placed on the same hoop, as shown by the example, which is copied from a sepulchral bas-relief on a tomb still remaining near Tivoli. 5. A plait of long hair, arranged in circles, like rings, round the back part of the head (Mart. Epigr. ii. 66.), as seen in the illus- tration annexed, which represents Plotina, the wife of the emperor Trajan, from an engraved gem. The female pea- santry in many parts of the Roman and Neapolitan states still continue to arrange their hair in a similar manner. 6. In architecture, annulets ; which consist of a series . of rings or cir- cular fillets, vary- ing in ancient examples from three to four in number, which are placed immediately below the echinus of a Doric capital, and fall off per- pendicularly under one another like an inverted flight of steps. Vitruv. iv. 3. 4. APALA'RE or APPLA'RE. description of ladle or spoon, c more particularly intended for cooking or handing round soft boiled or perhaps poached eggs (Gloss. Isid.) ; though it was also employed for other purposes. (Auson, Epist. xxi.) The illustration is copied from an original of bronze found in a kit- chen at Pompeii, which, it is be- lieved, affords a specimen of one of these implements. APEX. Literally a pointed piece of olive wood, set in a flock of wool, which was worn on the top of the head by the Flamines and Salii (Festus, s. v. Albogalerus. Serv. ad Virg. A. x. 270.). It was fastened by a fil- let on each side, or to a cap which fitted the head, as in the example, from a Roman bas-relief; whence the word apex is often put for the cap itself. Fabius Pictor ap. Gell. x. 15. 3. Liv. vi. 41. 2. (KWJ/OS). The ridge on the top of a helmet to which the crest of horsehair was affixed. (Isidor. Orig. xviii. 14. 2. Virg. JEn. xii. 492.) The apex itself is prominently shown in the annexed example, which is copied from a bronze original found at Pompeii; but a specimen, with the horse-hair crest attached, is given under the article GALEA. APHRAC'TUS or APHRAC'- TUM (&$pa.KTov). A ship without a deck, or only partially covered fore and aft, in the manner which we G 2 44 APIARIUM. APOSPHRAGISMA. term half -decked. (Cic. Att. v. 13.) The illustration is copied from the Vatican Virgil, and shows by the relative height of the men that it has no deck in the centre ; by comparing the decked ship (s. v. NAVIS CON- STRATA), the different construction of the two will be readily apparent. APIA'RIUM (fj.€\ia-<r<av, /ieAitnro- rpo(f)f'iov). An apiary, or place where a number of beehives are kept. Columell. ix. 5. 6. APIA'RIUS G*eA«rcrefo _ ovpy6s). One who tends and keeps bees. Plin. H.N. xxi. 31. APICA'TUS. Wearing the apex or pointed cap of the Flamen Dialis. (Ovid. Fast. iii. 397.) See the en- graving in the preceding column, and article FLAMEN. APLUS'TRE and APLUS'- TRUM (&£Aa<TToi/). An ornament made of wooden planks, somewhat resembling the fea- thers of a bird's wing, which was commonly placed on the stern of a ship. (Lucan. iii. 586. Lu- cret. iv. 439.) The illustration repre- sents an aplustre in detail from an ancient bas-relief, of which there is a cast in the British Museum ; the situation which it oc- cupied upon the vessel is shown in the preceding wood-cut. APODYTE'RIUM (dirotivrfyiov). An undressing-room ; especially a chamber in the baths (Cic. Q. Fr. iii. 1. . 1. Plin. Ep. v. 6. 25.), where the visitors undressed, and left their clothes while bathing ; for in the public establishments every person was compelled by law to strip himself before he passed into the interior apartments, as a check to robbery, and to prevent the concealment of stolen articles about the person. (Cic. Coel. 26.) The illustration repre- sents the interior of the Apodyterium in the baths at Pompeii ; its relative position with regard to the other apartments of the establishment may be seen on the ground-plan of BALINE.E, on which it is marked A. It is furnished with three doors : the one on the left hand, at the further end of the engraving, is the general entrance from the out- side ; that on the right of it opens into the cold bath ; and the nearest one on the right gives access to the warm bath. Seats for dressing and undressing upon run along three sides of the room ; and holes are seen in the walls, in which wooden pegs were fixed for hanging up the clothes. The small dark niche under the window served to contain a lamp. APOPHORE'TA ( Presents which a host gave to his guests at the conclusion of an entertainment, to be carried home with them. Com- pliments of this kind were more espe- cially customary during the fete of the Saturnalia. Suet. Cal. 55. Id. Vesp. 19. APOSPHRAGIS'MA (dirofffpd- yiff/j.a'). The device or impression upon a signet ring. (Plin. Epist. x. 55. 3.) See the illustrations s. v. ANULUS. APOTHECA. AQUARIUS. 45 APOTHE'CA (tiroes). A store-room or repository for any de- scription of stock. (Cic. Vatin. 5. Id. Phil. ii. 27.) This word contains the elements of the Italian bottega, and French boutique, a shop ; but that is a perversion of the original sense ; which did not mean a store in which goods were kept for sale, but only for the private use of the owner. Com- pare TABERNA. 2. In a more special sense by the Romans, a store room for wine in the upper part of the house (whence Horace, Od. iii. 21. 7. descende testa; Plin. Ep. ii. 17. 13. Plin. H.N. xiv. 14. 6. and 7.), where it was kept to ripen in amphorae, or, as we might say, " in bottle ; " whereas the new wine in dolia and cupce, or, according to our expression " in the wood," was placed below in the cella vinaria. [CELLA.] APOTHEO'SIS (d»00e«(rw). A word borrowed from the Greek lan- guage, but only used at a late period (Tertull. Apol 34.), for which the Latin term is CONSECRATIO, which see. APPARITO'RES. A collective name given to the public officers attached to the service of the Roman magistrates, including the ACCENSI, LICTORES, PR^CONES, SCRIBE, VIA- TORES, &c. Cic. Q. Fr. 1. 1. 4. Suet. Tib. 11. 2. In the army, the servants who waited upon the military tribunes. Hirt. B. Afr. 37. Lamprid. Alex. Sev. 52. above another ; and others were built with two or three tiers of arches, AQU^DUCTUS An aqueduct; an artificial channel, frequently of many miles in length, for the purpose of conveying a pure stream of water from its source to any determinate point. (Cic. Att. xiii. 6. Frontinus de Aquceduct.') The illustration represents a portion of the aqueduct constructed by the em- peror Claudius, which is built of tra- vertine stone, and upon a single tier of arches ; but some aqueducts con- veyed as many as three separate streams in distinct channels, one according to the nature of the sites over which they passed. The channel (specus), through which the water flowed, is seen, uncovered at the top. AQUA'GIUM. A water course or stream of water which was com- mon property, and could only be diverted in small portions by the pro- prietors through whose lands it passed. Pomp. Dig. 43. 20. 3. AQUA'LIS. Any vessel which contains water for drinking ; a water can, or water jug. Plaut. Cure. ii. 3. 33. Id. Mil. iii. 2. 39. 2. The same as Matula (Varro, L. L. v. 119.); to which the joke contained in the passage of Plautus (Mil. iii. 2. 39.) probably alludes. AQUA'RIUS (%o04w>s). A water carrier. Cic. Fam» viii. 6. 2. A slave employed in the baths, who brought in the water, poured it over the bather, and filled the labra, which latter duty is shown by the 46 AQUILA. ARA. figure in the illustration, copied from a fictile vase. These men were noted for their licentious habits. Juv. vi. 332. compared with Festus, s. v. 3. An officer at Rome attached to the service of the aqueducts, whose duty it was to see that not more than the quantity allowed by law to each in- dividual, or public establishment, was laid on from the main. Front. Aq. AQUILA. The eagle, the prin- cipal ensign of the Roman legion (Plin. H.N. x. 5.), made of silver or bronze, and with ex- panded wings, as shown in the ex- ample, from an ori- ginal published by La Chausse (Recueil cTAntiq. Romaines, v. 15.). The manner in which it was carried is shown by the illustration to the following word. 2. (cue-nfc, derds, dercqua). In archi- tecture the triangular face included by the horizontal and sloping cornices of a pediment, to which latter it formed, as it were, a support (sus- tinentis jastigium aquilce. Tac. Hist. iii. 71.). The term is properly Greek (Pausan. i. 24. 5. Id. v. 10. 20.), and corresponds to the Latin TYMPANUM ; unless the latter word was employed when the part consisted of a mere naked face unadorned with sculpture ; and the former, when the surface was broken by bas-reliefs ; for the name originated in a very early Greek practice of carving an eagle in the pediment of a temple, especially of those which were dedicated to Jupi- ter, as in the example from a bas- relief of the Villa Mattel at Rome. In Etruscan or other edifices of arseo- style construction, the aquila was formed of wood, in order to lighten the pressure upon the architrave ; a circumstance which caused the con- flagration of the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, when the Capitol was besieged by Vespasian. Tac. Hist. I. c. AQUIL'IFER. The principal ensign of a Roman legion, who carried the eagle. (Cses. B. G. v. 37. Suet. Aug. 10.). There was but one aquilifer to each legion, though there were many signiferi, or standard bearers. (VegetJftt ii. 13. Compare Tac. Ann. i. 39. and 61.) The example is taken from the Column of Trajan, on which an ensign carrying the eagle is several times represented, with the skin of a wild beast over his head and back, in the same manner as here shown. AQUIMINA'RIUM, AQUIMI- NA'LE, or AQU^MANA'LIS. A jug from which water was poured over the hands before and after meals, It was accompanied by a basin to receive the water as it fell from the hands, so that the two together would answer to our "basin and ewer." Varro, ap. Non. s. v. p. 547. Ulp. Dig. 34. 2. leg. 19. n. 12. ARA (frvrhpiov, f}o)n6s). An altar ; i. e. any structure raised above the ground, either of turf, stones, brick, or sculptured marble, upon which the offerings made to the gods were placed or burned. Altars were either circular or square, with a cavity at the top, in which the fire was ARA. 47 kindled, and an orifice at the side or bottom, through which the libations of wine, or juices of the burnt offering, exuded. The cavity for the fire is shown at the top, and the orifice for the outflow of liquids at the bottom, of the right-hand figure in the cut, which is copied from a Pompeian painting ; the left-hand figure is from a fictile vase, and shows the liquid streaming out from a vent-hole placed higher up. These parts are essential to every altar, on which victims were burnt, or libations poured ; where they are wanting, though the marble bears a general resemblance to an altar, it is only a cippus, not an ara, a fact which archaeologists too often lose sight of. 2. Altars were erected in the fol- lowing situations. In the lucus, or sacred grove, before the statue of the divinity to whom it was consecrated (Horn. //. ii. 305.), as in the illus- tration from the arch of Trajan, in which the trees represent the sacred grove surrounding a statue of Diana, before which the altar is placed. 3. On the steps under the entrance porch, or in front, of a temple ; as in the annexed engraving, which repre- sents the remains of the temple of Fortune at Pompeii, where the altar is seen at the bottom of the steps which lead up to the entrance door. 4. In the streets of a town (Plaut. Aul. iv. i. 20. Id. Most. v. i. 45.), and against the walls of a house, in front of a picture or image of the Lares Viales: as in the annexed street view at Pompeii. The top compartment of the bas-relief above the altar con- tains the figures of two LARES, ex- actly similar to the one used as an illustration for that word ; and the two snakes below are a sign to warn the public against the commission of a " nuisance," as explained under ANGUIS. 5. Lastly, they were placed near or upon the impluvium of private houses ; and on these the family sacrifices were offered to the Penates. The engraving represents a resto- ration of part of the atrium in the house of the Dioscuri, at Pompeii, in which the impluvium is seen in the foreground, with the altar on its margin, traces of which were dis- 48 ARA. ARATOR. when excavation was covered made. 6. Ara turicrema. An altar on •which frankincense was sprinkled and burnt. (Lucret. ii. 353. Virg. jEn. iv. 453.) The illustration, from an ancient painting discovered at the foot of the Palatine hill, shows a female engaged in the duty of sprink- ling incense upon a burning altar, which, from its di- minutive size, ap- pears to have been intended solely for such offerings ; but the passages of Lu- cretius and Virgil, above referred to, seem to indicate that the epithet turicrema was also applied very gene- rally to every kind of altar, because the incense was commonly used with all.. 7. Ara sepulcri or arafuneris. The funeral pile upon which a dead body »**• •»«--• -•»*•-• lustration is from a bas-relief repre- senting the story of the Iliad, supposed to have been executed in the age of Nero, and represents the burning of Patroclus. ARACH'NE. A particular kind of sun-dial, which is naturally be- lieved to have received its name from a resemblance to the spider's web produced by the hour lines inter- secting the circles of the equator and tropics, described upon it ; but of which no ancient specimen has been discovered. Vitruv. ix. 8. AR.fEOSTY'LOS (apaioortiAoy). ArcBostyle; applied to a building or colonnade in which the columns are situated at wide intervals, of not less than 3\ or 4 of their own diameters apart •— & — -& from each other ; as in £— 4-— £ the lowest line of the an- nexed diagram, which shows the re- lative width of the five different kinds of intercolumniations adopted by the ancients. The arseostyle construc- tion was particularly employed in the Tuscan order, and for localities fre- quented by a large concourse of people, in order not to occupy too much room by a multitude of columns. It required an architrave of wood, as stone or marble could not support a superincumbent weight upon supports placed so far apart. The colonnade surrounding the Forum of Pompeii is of this construction, in which vestiges of the wooden architraves were found at the period when it was excavated. Vitruv. iii. 2. ARA'TOR (oporrjp). One who ploughs ; a ploughman (Plin. H. N. was burned (Virg. JEn. vi. 177. Ov. Trist. iii. 13. 21.), so termed because , it was built up of logs of wood in a _ square form, like an altar. The il- ARATRUM. ARCA. 49 xviii. 49. § 2.). Also a ploughing ox, for the word is equally applied to animals (Ovid. Fast. i. 698.). Both are shown by the illustration, from a Roman bas-relief. 2. A tenant farmer upon a large scale, who cultivated extensive tracts of the public lands for a tenth part of the produce ; generally persons of the equestrian order, and spoken of by Cicero as a useful and excellent class of men. Cic. Agr. ii. 31. 2. Verr. iii. 55. ARA'TRUM (Uporpov). A plough. The plough most commonly repre- sented on ancient monuments is a very simple machine, consisting of the branch of an elm tree either naturally or artificially bent into a crook (buris) at one end, which when sharpened to a point, and cased with iron, answered the purpose of a share (vomer) ; another branch growing out from the main one in a direction contrary to the crooked end, served for a plough tail (stiva) or handle to guide the machine, and press the share to a sufficient depth into the ground. The whole of these parts and details are distinctly shown by the preceding wood-cut. 2. The next illustration represents a plough of improved construction, from a bas-relief discovered in the island of Magnesia. With the ex- ception of not being furnished with a coulter, it possessed all the component parts enumerated by the Greek and Latin authors : viz. A A, buris (7t5r?s), the plough-tail, the opposite end of which forms the pole (temo, iffro- ; B, dentale (eAu/ua), the share beam ; c, vomer (tWts), the plough- share ; D is a truss which binds the share-beam more firmly to the pole and plough-tail, and which some archaeologists distinguish by the name fulcrum, but without quoting their authority; EE, aures Orepci), the earth boards ; F, stiva (exeVArj), the handle by which the ploughman directed the plough. 3. The next example represents a wheeled plough (currus) from Caylus, which, besides the parts above enu- merated, is likewise furnished with a coulter (cutter), like the blade of a knife, attached to the pole in front of the share. 4. Aratrum auritum. A plough furnished with mould-boards. Pallad. i. 43. 1. Wood-cut, No. 2. EE. 5. Aratrum simplex. A plough without mould-boards. Pallad. I.e. Woodcut s. ARATOR. ARBUS'CUL.E (o^uae^oSey). Strong wooden collars, or rings fastened underneath a cart (plamtrum) or under an engine of war, for the purpose of receiving the axle, which revolved together with its wheels in these collars, in the same manner as now seen in a child's go-cart (Vitruv. x. 14. 1. Ginzrot, Wagen und Fahr- werke, i. 91. 3.). When the wheels revolved upon their axle, as was usual for carriages (currus), the axle was of course a fixture, and arbuseulce were not necessary. ARCA (Kifomfc). Any large and strong box or chest in which clothes, money, or any kind of property was kept (Cato, E. R. ii. 3. Cic. Farad. 50 ARCA. ARCERA. vi. 1. Juv. xi. 26. Suet Cal 49) ; a clothes trunk, money chest, &c. The example here introduced is a very remarkable specimen of a money chest, discovered in the atrium of a house at Pompeii; and which, with great apparent reason, is believed to have been a chest in which the quaestor kept the public monies. It stands upon raised pedestals coated with marble ; the frame is of wood, lined inside with bronze, and plated outside with iron. It is described in detail in Gell's Pompeiana, vol. ii. pp.30 — 31. 2. A common wooden box in which the remains of such persons as could not afford the expense of a funeral and regular coffin were carried to the place of sepulture. Hor. Sat. i. 8. 9. Lucan. viii. 736. Caii Dig. ii. 7. 7. 3. A coffin in which a corpse was deposited entire, in the earth or in a tomb, when not reduced to ashes on the funeral pile (Plin. H.N. xiii. 27. bottom, sunk into the ground, from the interior of which the water was pumped out, the void being then filled in with stone or other materials, of which the foundation was composed. Vitruv. v. 12. 3. ARCA'RII. Officers who kept the accounts of the emperor's privy purse (fiscus), whence they were termed Coesariani ; their offices were situated in the Forum of Trajan. Lamprid. Alex. Sev. 43. Fragment, jur. ante Justinean. a Maio edita, p. 38. 2. In private families, cashiers or servants who kept the accounts, and superintended the receipts and dis- bursements of their master's property. Inscript. ap. Grut. 641. 7, 8. Scsev. Dig. 40. 5. 41. AR'CERA. A close covered cart boarded all over, so as to resemble a ! large chest (area), which was used at Rome for the transport of invalids or aged and infirm persons, before the invention of litters and other more luxurious contrivances (Varro, Val. Max. i. 1. 12.). The illustration shows the plan and elevation of an original coffin of baked clay (Uggeri, Capo di Bove, pi. 19.). The shaded part in the plan is a raised sill for the head of the corpse, and the round hole in it is a cavity for receiving aromatic balsams, which were poured in through a corresponding orifice seen on the side of the shell in the upper figure. The whole was covered by a lid. 4. A dungeon cell in a private house where slaves were confined. Cic. Milo, 22. 5. A wooden caisson, employed when laying foundations under water. It was a square box without top or L. L. v. 140.). The inmate reclined in it at full length, for which purpose it was furnished with cushions and pillows inside ; and the exterior was usually covered over with loose dra- pery to give it a mqre sightly ap- pearance, and conceal the rough boarding of which it was made (Gell. xx. 1. 8.). The illustration is from a sepulchral marble preserved in the Museum at Baden, published by Ginzrot (Wagen und Fahrwerke, tab. 19. 2.), and may be regarded as the only known example of this pri- mitive conveyance, the great antiquity of which is authenticated by the men- tion of it in the Twelve Tables. (Gell. ARCHIM1MUS. ARCULUM. 51 /. c.) The original also shows a j bundle of drapery placed on the roof in a heap, intended to be spread over the whole carriage, as mentioned above. ARCHIMI'MUS (dpx//M/*0*). The leader of a company of buffoons, who were engaged at funerals to dance and play the merry-andrew in the pro- cession, the leader of the party enact- ing a mock representation of the person and character of the deceased. Suet. Vesp. 19. See also MIMUS, 2. ARCUA'RIUS. One who makes bows and arrows. Aur. Arc. Dig. 50. 6. 6. Compare Veget. Mil. ii. 11. ARCUA'TIO. A substruction of arches for the support of any super- structure, as a roadway, bridge, or aqueduct. Frontinus, 18 and 21. Cut of AQU^DUCTUS. ARCUA'TUS. In general arched, or built upon arches. Plin. JEp. x. 47. 2. See cut of AQU^DUCTUS. 2. Arcuatus currus. A two- wheeled carriage with an arched awning over head. (Liv. i. 21.) The example is from a painting in an Etruscan tomb, published by Micali (Italia avanti il Dominio de' Roinani). ARCUBALLIS'TA. An instru- ment for shooting arrows, combining the properties of the bow and ballista. The name points to a weapon in the nature of the modern cross-bow ; but it is impossible to define it precisely, as the exact character of the BAL- LISTA is not sufficiently understood. Veget. Mil ii. 15. ARCUBALLISTA'RIUS. One who manages the Arcuballista. Ve- get. Mil. iv. 21. AR'CULA (/tiftfiTKw). Diminutive of A RCA, in its general senses; but also specially applied as follows : — 1. A painter's colour box, divided into a number of separate compart- ments ; more espe- cially used by en- caustic painters, in which they kept distinct the diffe- rent coloured waxes used in their art. (Varro, R. R. iii. 17. 4.) The illustration is from a Roman bas- relief, which represents Painting in- ducing M. Varro to illustrate his book with portraits. 2. A small sepulchre or stone coffin, such as was used by the Chris- tianized Romans, and deposited in their catacombs, when the bodies were buried, without being burnt. (Inscript. ap. Grut. (1031. 4.) The illustration represents one of these coffins in the catacombs at Rome, a portion only being removed in the drawing to show the skeleton. ARCULA'RIUS. A maker of arculce, caskets, little boxes, jewel cases, &c. Plaut. Aul. iii. 5. 45. AR'CULUM. A chaplet made from the branch of the pomegranate tree bent into a circle, and fastened at the ends by a fillet of white wool, which was worn by the Flaminica Dialis at all sacrifices, and on certain occasions likewise by the wife of the Rex sacrificulus. Serv. ad Virg. JEn. iv. 137. 2. Or Arculus. A porter's knot; especially the linen cloth rolled up and twisted into a circle which the young women placed on the top of their heads in the same way as is still practised by the Italian pea- santry, as a support for the baskets (canestrcp, cistce) which they carried H 2 52 ARCUMA. ARCUS. in the Panathenaic and other fes- tivals. (Festus, s. v.} This contrivance is frequently represented in sculpture upon figures carrying any sort of burden on their heads, such as the Canephorce, Cayatides, Telamones, of which latter the figure in the cut presents an example from the baths of Pompeii ; and is fre- quently mistaken for the modius, -which it resembles indeed in appearance, but would be a most inap- propriate ornament for such a position. AR'CUMA. A small cart (plaus- trum) or truck, in which a single person could be conveyed. (Festus, *. v.) The illustration, from a se- tile vase ; the other, when unbent, had a circular form, like a bay (sinus), pulchral bas-relief at Rome, agrees so precisely with the definition of Festus as to leave no doubt of its real name. ARCUS (jBufe, roV). A bow for shooting arrows, the use of which amongst the Greeks was chiefly con- fined to the sports of the field and contests of skill, with some partial exceptions during the Homeric age (//. xii. 350.), after which it never appears as a military weapon. The Romans employed it in like manner as a hunting and fowling piece ; but it was never introduced into their armies, excepting by auxiliaries from countries where it was the national weapon. The Greek bows were constructed on two different plans ; the one con- sisting of two horns joined together by a straight stock in the centre, like the top figure in the cut, from a fic- as shown by the bottom figure, also from a fictile vase ; and when strung, was bent backwards against the curve, which must have given it tre- mendous power, and will explain the true meaning of Homer's epithet TTO- \ivrovov (IL viii. 266.). The two forms are also distinguished by the Latin writers with the epithets pa- tulus (Ov. Met. viii. 30.), and sinu- osus or sinuatus (Id. Met. viii. 380. Am. i. 1. 23.). 2. The Roman bow, as shown in their paintings, did not differ from the Greek one. 3. Arcus Scythicus. The Scythian bow mentioned by the Greek and Latin authors, possessed a very dif- ferent form from either of the two preceding examples, as will be per- ceived by the illustration copied from the base of a candela- brum in the Villa Albani, which repre- sents Hercules carrying off the sacred tripod from the temple of Apollo (see Hygin. Fab. 32.). A bow of similar form is seen in the hands of Hercules on a gem in the Florence Gallery ; on one of the Stosch Cabinet ; and on the base of a candelabrum at Dresden, representing ARCUS. 53 the same quarrel between Hercules and Apollo. The lunated figure in the first woodcut has often been cited by philologists as a specimen of the Scythian bow, but the following par- ticulars will satisfactorily prove that such a supposition is not supported by authority: — 1. Hercules made use of two bows (Herod, iv. 10.) ; one of which, as he received it from Apollo (Apollodor. ii. 4. 11.), was necessarily a Greek one ; the other, which he had from Teutarus, a Scy- thian shepherd (Lycophr. 56. Tzetz. ad Lycophr. 50. Compare Theocr. Id. xiii. 55.), was necessarily one of those used by the natives of that country. 2. Lycophron (917.) assimilates the Scythian bow to a serpent; and Becker, in describing the figure on the candelabrum of Dresden (Augus- teum, pi. 5.), singularly enough mis- takes it for a serpent, though the quiver at his side is clearly indica- tive of its real character. 3. Strabo (ii. p. 332. Siebenk. Compare Am- mian. xxii. 8. 5.) compares the outline of the Pontus Euxinus to that of a Scythian bow ; one side, which is nearly straight, forming the chord ; the other, which, as he says, is recessed into two bays, one larger and more circular, the other smaller, and receding less, the bow itself. 4. Euripides (ap. Athen. x. 80.) introduces a countryman who had seen the name of Theseus, which he could not read, somewhere inscribed, endeavouring to explain the charac- ters of which it was composed by some familiar image ; and he com- pares the fourth letter, the Greek Sigma, to a lock of hair twisted into curls like the tendrils of a vine, fidffrpvxos fiXiy/Afvos. 5. Whilst Agathon (ap. Athen. I. c.), in re- lating the same story, makes his rustic assimilate the same letter to the form of a Scythian bow. 6. Now the earliest character used to express the Greek Sigma was written thus £, or thus J, as shown by the Sigean marbles, a monument of very high antiquity (Chishul. Inscr. Sig. p. 4. and 41.), and not like the letter C, which is a more modern form. 7. Thus the bow carried by the figure in our en- graving corresponds exactly with every one of the images to which the Scythian bow is compared — a serpent, the contour of the Euxine sea, the tendril of a parasitical plant, and the Greek Sigma; whereas the lunated form has no aifinity with any one of them, except indeed the letter C ; but if that were admitted, all the rest would be utterly inappropriate. 4. An arch, a mechanical arrange- ment by which tiles, bricks, or blocks of stone are disposed in the form of a curve, which enables them to support one another by their mutual pressure, and bear any superincumbent weight, such as a bridge, aqueduct, upper story of a building, &c. &c. Ovid. Met. iii. 169. Juv. Sat. iii. 11. Though the principle upon which an arch is constructed was not entirely unknown to the Greeks, yet their universal adoption of the co- lumnar style of architecture, and general deficiency of roads, aque- ducts, and bridges, rendered its use unnecessary to them ; but the Ro- mans employed it extensively in all their great works, as will be seen by numerous examples throughout these pages, and at a very early period, as shown by the illustration annexed, which is an elevation of the wall called the pidcrum littus on the 54 AREA. banks of the Tiber, and the three concentric arches which formed the Cloaca Maxima, a structure belong- ing to the fabulous age of the elder Tarquin. 5. An archway, or triumphal arch (Suet. Claud. 1., and with the epi- thet triumphalis, Cenotaph. Pisan. C. Ccesaris. August. JP.). During the republican period these were tem- porary structures of wood thrown across a street through which a tri- umph passed, and removed after the show ; for the permanent archways recorded under the republic (Liv. xxxiii. 27. Id. xxxvii. 3.) are termed fornices, and were not erected to com- memorate the honours of a triumph. (See FORNIX.) But under the em- pire they were converted into per- manent edifices, built of marble, and erected in various parts of the city, as well at Rome as in the provincial towns ; small and unostentatious at first, with a single gang-way, but subsequently increased in size, and elaborately covered with sculpture and statues, as in the illustration, which presents an elevation of the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus, now standing at Rome, to which the statues only on the top have been restored, as they originally existed, from the design on a medal of that emperor. A'REA. In its original sense, is used to designate any vacant plot of ground in a city, affording a site for a building (Varro, Z. L. \. 38. Hor. Epist. i. 10. 13.), and from that it is also transferred to the open space upon which a house that had been pulled down had formerly stood (Liv. iv. 16.); whence the following more special significations are de- duced : — 1. A large open space in a town, like the French place, the Italian piazza, and the English parade, left free and unencumbered by buildings for the exercise and recreation of the townspeople, (Vitruv. i. 7. 1. Hor. Od. i. 9. 18.) These areas were often embellished by statues and works of art ; sometimes surrounded by posts and rails to define their extent, and prevent private indivi- duals from building on the public property (Inscript. ap. Bellori, Fragm. Urb. Earn. p. 70.) ; and still further to preclude all attempts at encroach- ment or appropriation, they were consecrated to some deity who had his altar erected in the centre; and hence they were distinguished from one another by the name of the deity under whose protection they were placed, as the area of Mercury, the area of Pollux, the area of Apollo, which latter is represented in the il- lustration from the ancient marble plan of Rome, now preserved in the Capitol, but which originally formed the pavement to the temple of Ro- mulus and Remus. The altar, as- cended on each side by a flight of steps, is seen in the centre ; the open space around is sufficiently apparent, and its extent may be guessed by completing the mutilated inscription, which was AREA APOLLINIS. 2. The open space of ground in front of a Roman house, temple, or other edifice, which forms the area AREA. ARENARIUS. 55 of the vestibule (VESTIBULUM, Plin. Paneg. 52. 3. Inscript. ap. Nardini, present day, and clearly shown by the example from a painting in the Rom. Ant. iii. 4.), as in the example (copied from an ancient painting, in which some of the principal edifices of Rome are depicted), where it lies between the two projecting wings in front of the building. 3. An open space in front of a cemetery, around which the sepul- chres were ranged, and which served as an Ustrinum, where the funeral pyre was raised, and the body burnt. (Stat. Theb. vi. 57. Tertull. ad Scapul. 3. Marini, Inscriz. Alb. p. 118.) The illustration represents an area of this description, with the tombs built round it, which was ex- cavated in the Villa Corsini at Rome. 4. (aAwrj.) A tlireshing-floor ; or more accurately a flat circular area in the open fields, paved with flints, and then covered over with clay or chalk, and levelled by the roller, in which the grains of corn were trodden out of the ear by cattle driven round it (Virg. G. i. 178. Hor. Sat. i. 1. 45. Cato, Columell. Pallad.), a mode of threshing commonly adopted in Egypt, Greece, and Italy, even at the Egyptian tombs. 5. The square open space between the two wings of a "clap net" when they are spread on the ground, upon which the fowler sprinkled his seed to induce the birds to alight between them. Plaut. Asin. i. 3. 64. 6. A bed or border in a flower or a kitchen garden. Columell. xi. 3. 13. Pallad. i. 34. 7. 7. In Martial (x. 24. 9,), appa- rently used for the race-course in a circus, round which the chariots ran, more usually called spatium ; but the reading is doubtful. ARE'NA. The flat oval floor in the interior of an amphitheatre, where the wild beasts and gladiators fought, so called because it was sprinkled over with sand to prevent the feet from slipping (Suet. Nero, 53. Juv. Sat. iv. 100.) ; see the second wood- cut s. AMPHITHEATRUM, which re- presents the amphitheatre at Pompeii, in its present state ; the arena is the flat space in the centre, where the two small figures are standing. AREN A'RIA or ARENA'RIUM, A sand-pit. Cic. Varro. Vitruv. ARENA'RITJS. A general term for any one who contended in the arena of an amphitheatre either against his fellow-men, or with wild beasts, including therefore the GLA- DIATOR and BESTIARIUS. Pet. Sat. cxxvi. 6. 2. A teacher of arithmetic or geo- metry, so called because he marked 56 AREOLA. ARMAK1UM. out his calculations or diagrams upon a tray covered with sand. Ter- tull. Pall. 6. ABACUS, 1. A RE'OL A. Diminutive of AREA ; a small open square or place (Plin. Ep. v. 6. 20.) ; a small bed for flowers or vegetables, &c. in a garden. Colu- mell. xi. 2. 30. ARETAL'OGUS. A personage introduced at dinner time amongst the Romans to amuse the company, but in what character or by what means is not clearly ascertained, per- haps as a sort of court jester or buffoon. Juv. Sat. xv. 16. Ruperti ad I Suet. Aug. 74. Casaub. ad I. ARGE'I. Certain sites in the city of Rome, twenty-seven in num- ber, with small chapels attached to them (Varro, L. L. v. 45.), conse- crated by Numa for the performance of religious rites (Liv. i. 22.), and visited, it would appear, in succession (Ov. Fast. iii. 791. Aul. Gell. x. 16. 4.), upon certain festivals, like the Slazioni of modern Italy. 2. Images or Guy Fawkeses, made \ of bullrushes, thirty in number, which ' were annually cast into the Tiber from the Sublician bridge, on the Ides of May, by the pontifices and Vestals,- j the origin and meaning of which ! custom are involved in obscurity. I Varro, L.L. vii. 44. Ov. Fast. v. ' 621. Festus. s. v. ARGENTA'RIA, sc. Taberna. A silversmith, banker, or money- changer's booth or shop, generally situated under the colonnade which surrounded the forum. Plaut. Epid. ii. 2. 17. Liv. xxvi. 27. ARGENTA'RIUS. A private banker, as contradistinguished from the public banker (Mensarius) ; he received deposits, and allowed interest upon them, acted as a money-changer for foreigners, and attended public sales as a broker or commissioner, to bid for his employers. Cic. Ccecin. 6. Plaut. Aul. iii. 5. 54. Suet. Nero, 5. AR'IES (/cpi(fc). A battering-ram ; an instrument composed of a powerful wooden beam, furnished at one extre- mity with a mass of iron moulded into the form of a ram's head, which was driven with violence against the walls of a fortified place, in order to effect a breach in them. Cic. Off. i. 11. Virg. Mn. xii. 706. In the primitive manner of using this instrument, it was carried by a number of men in their arms, and thrust without any other assistance than their united energies, against the opposing walls (Vitruv. x. 13. \.\ in the same way as here employed by the Dacians, on the Column of Trajan. The next improvement was to sus- pend the ram from a beam placed upon uprights, by which means it was swung to and fro, with less manual labour, but much greater mechanical force (Vitruv. x. 13. 2.) ; and, lastly, it was fixed upon a frame which moved upon wheels, and was covered over by a shed and siding of boards, to protect the soldiers who worked it from the missiles of the enemy (Vitruv. /. r .), as here shown, from the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus. ARMA'RIUM. An armoire, cabinet, or cupboard, for keeping do- mestic utensils, clothes, money, cu- riosities, or any of the articles in daily use. It was a large piece of ARMENTARIUS. ARMILLA. 57 furniture, usually fixed against the walls of a room, divided by shelves into compartments, and closed in front by doors. (Cic. Cluerd. 64. Plaut. Capt. iv. 4. 10. Pet. Sat. xxix. 8. Plin. H. N. xxix. 32.) The example here given represents one of these cup-boards exactly as described, which forms part of the furniture belonging to a shoemaker's room in a Pompeian painting. It is filled with lasts and boots. 2. A book-case in a library ; also a sort of fixture, and sometimes let into the walls of a room. (Plin. Ep. ii. 17. 8.) These were divided into a number of separate compartments by shelves and upright divisions, and each division was distinguished by a number, as the first, second, and third case. Vitruv. vii. Prcpf. 7. Vopisc. Tac. 8. ARMENTA'RIUS. A herdsman of any kind, who had the charge of a drove of oxen, for instance, or of brood mares (Appul. Met. vii. p. 142.), and under whose care and superinten- dence they were driven up from the plains into the mountains, and kept there at pasture during the hot months of summer. Lucret. vi. 1250. Varro, R.R. ii. 5. 18. Virg. G. iii. 344. ARMILLA ($4\\iov or tyeKiov*). An armlet for men, consisting of three or four massive coils of gold or bronze, so as to cover a con- siderable portion of the arm (Fes- tus, s. v. Isidor. Orig. xix. 31. 16.), generally worn by the Medes and Persians, and also by the Gauls (Claud. Quadrigar. ap. Gell. ix. 13. 2.) as an ordinary part of their dress, and indi- cation of rank and power. The armlet belonged likewise to the national costume of the early Sa- bines(Liv.i. 11.); and was frequently given as a reward of valour to the Roman soldier who had distinguished himself, to be preserved as a record, or worn as a decoration upon solemn occasions. (Liv. x. 44.) The example here given is from a bronze original which was discovered in a tomb at Ripatransona upon the arm of a skeleton. 2. (ajU<£i'8ea, xA.tScfo', irepiKapiriov, irepiatyvpiov'). In a more general sense, any circle of gold, or orna- mental ring, which females, and, more especially, the women of Greece, wore upon various parts of their per- sons, round the wrists, on the fleshy part of the arm, or above the ankle, all of which fashions are exemplified in the annexed figure of Ariadne, from a Pompeian painting. The Greek language had an appropriate term for each of these ornaments ; but the Latin, which is not equally copious, includes all under the same name. (Plaut. Men. iii. 3. 3. Pet Sat. Ixvii. 6.) Where they are ascribed to men, as in Pet. Sat. xxxii. 4. and Mart. Ep. xi. 21. 7., it is to ridicule in the first instance the vulgar ostentation of a parvenu, and in the latter to characterise a womanly effeminacy of manner. 58 ARMILLATUS. ARTOPTIC1US. 3. An iron ring fastened upon the head of a beam, to prevent it from splitting. Vitruv. x. 2. 11. ARMILLA'TUS. Wearing an armlet (armilla), an ornament espe- cially characteristic of the Asiatic and some other foreign races; hence a notion of disparagement is commonly conveyed by the word, even when used with reference to those nations (Suet, Nero. 30.), and of severe cen- sure when applied to the Romans, as indicating an unmanly imitation of foreign customs. Suet. Cat. 52. Compare ARMILLA. 2. Arm Hiatus canis. A dog with an armilla or collar round his neck, as in the example, from a mosaic at Pompeii. Propert. iv. 8. 24. ARMILLUM. A vessel for wine, which Varro (ap. Non. s. v. p. 547.) describes as a kind of urceolus, and Festus (s. y.) enumerates amongst the sacrificial vessels. It must, how- ever, have been in very common use, as may be inferred from the proverb anus ad armillum (Lucil. Sat. p. 60. 10. ed. Gerlach. Apul. Met. ix. p. 197.), which is said of persons when they recur to their accustomed tricks or habits, as " old women to their wine cups." ARQUITES. An old form from arquus, instead of arcus •, bowmen, for whom the more usual name is SAGIT- TARII. Festus, s. v. AR'TEMON (fyrfaw, N. T.\ One of the sails on a ship, but which one, or where placed, is extremely doubtful. Isidorus (Orig. xix. 3. 3.) says, that it was used more for the purpose of assisting the steerage of a vessel than for accelerating her speed — dirigendce potius navis causa, quam celeritatis — which would seem to indicate a sail attached to a low mast, slanting over the stern, like that which is frequently used in our fishing boats, and in the small crafts of the Mediterranean, which the sailors there call the trinchetto. This is probably the true interpretation, for it distinguishes the sail by a par- ticular use and locality, entirely distinct from the various other sails of which the position and nature are sufficiently ascertained. Bay- fius, however (R. Nav. p. 121.) con- siders it to be the mainsail, which the Italians of his day called arte- mone; and Scheffer (Mil. Nav. v. 2.) a topsail hoisted above the main- sail. 2. The principal pulley in a system comprising several others (poly- spaston), which was attached to a contrivance for raising heavy weights. Vitruv. x. 2. 9. ARTOLAG'ANUS (dpTo\dyavov\ A very delicate and savoury kind of bread cake, flavoured with wine, milk, oil, and pepper. Athen. iii. 79. Cic. Fam. ix. 20. Plin. H. N. xviii. 27. ARTOP'TA (dprmmi). A mould in which pastry and bread were sometimes baked. Plaut. AuL ii. 9. 4. Compare Juv. Sat. v. 72., but most of the com- mentators refer this passage to the person who made this kind of bread. The example represents two originals from Pompeii of the simplest kind, but others of more elaborate patterns have been found in the same city. ARTOPTIC'IUS, sc. panis. A roll, cake, or small loaf of bread baked in a mould. ( Plin. H. N. xviii. 27.) The_ example is from an ori- ginal, which was discovered with several others in a baker's shop at Pompeii, hardened but uninjured by the lapse of so many centuries. ARULA. ARUNDO. 59 A'RULA. Diminutive of ARA. ARUN'DO. A reed or cane; a plant very generally used by the ancients in the manufacture of many articles for which the long, light, elastic, and tapering form of its stalk was peculiarly suitable ; whence the word is used both by prose writers and poets to designate the object formed out of it. (Plin. H.N. xvi. 66.) Of these the most important are as follows : — 1. A bow, made of cane, particu- larly employed by the Parthians and Oriental races. Sil. Ital. x. 12. 2. An arrow made of cane, em- ployed by the Egyptians and Oriental races, as well as the Greeks. (Virg. 2En. iv. 73. Ovid. Met. i. 471.) The example represents an original Egyptian arrow of this description. 3. A fishing rod made of cane, which is shown in the annexed en- graving from a painting at Pompeii. Plaut. Hud. ii. 1. 5. Ov. Met. xiii. 923. 4. A cane rod tipped with bird- lime, employed by the ancient fowlers for catching birds. The example here given is from a terra-cotta lamp, on which a fowler is represented going out for his sport, with this rod over his shoulder ; the call bird sits on one end of it, and a cage or a trap is suspended from the other. It was applied in the following manner. The sportsman first hung the cage with his call bird on the bough of a tree, under which, or at some conve- nient distance from it, he contrived to conceal himself, and when a bird, attracted by the singing of its com- panion, perched on the branches, he quietly inserted his rod amongst the boughs, until it reached his prey, which stuck to the lime, and was thus drawn to the ground. When the tree was very high, or the fowler under the neces- sity of taking up his position at a distance from it, the rod was made in separate joints, like our fishing rods, so that he could gradually lengthen it out until it reached the object of his pursuit, whence it is termed arundo crescens or texta. (Mart. Ep. ix. 55. Id. xiv. 218. Sil. Ital. vii. 674—677. Pet. Sat. 109. 7. Bion, Id.\\. 5.) The last illustration is from an engraved gem, and shows the process clearly. 5. A reed -pen, for writing upon paper or papyrus, one of which, by the side of an inkstand, is here repre- sented from a Pompeian painting. I 2 60 AKX. AS. Pers. Sat. iii. 11. Auson. Epist. vii. 50. . 6. A pandean pipe, which -was made of several stalks of the reed or cane, of un- equal length and bore, fastened together and ce- mented with wax; hence termed arundo cerata (Ovid. Met. xi. 154. Suet. Jul 32.), as shown by the example from a Pompeian marble. 7. A rod employed in weaving, for the purpose of separating the threads of the warp {stamen) before the " leashes " (licia) were attached, and passed alternately in and out, before and behind each alternate thread, in order to separate the whole into two distinct parcels, which, when decussated, formed a " shed " for the passage of the shuttle, as represented in the centre of the loom here engraved, which is copied from the Vatican Virgil. Ovid. Met vi. 55., and consult TELA, TEXO. 8. A long cane with a sponge, or other appropriate material, affixed to the end of it, which thus served as a broom for sweeping and cleansing the ceilings of a room. Plaut. Stick. ii. 3. 23. Compare Mart. Ep. xii. 48. and the broom in the hands of the JEDITUUS, s. v. 9. A cane rod for measuring. Prudent. Psych. 826. 10. A stick or cudgel made of cane. Pet. Sat. 134. 4. ; but this is probably the same as No. 8. 11. An espalier of canes for train- ing vines. Varro, E. R. i. 8. 2. ARX (o/cpdTroAzs). The fortress or citadel of an ancient town. These were always formed upon the top of a steep hill, or an abrupt and pre- cipitous rock, rising out of the general level of the plain upon which the habitable parts of the city were built. They required, therefore, but little artificial fortification, in addition to the natural difficulties of the site, beyond that of a wall at the top, and of a gate and tower to command the prin- cipal access. Many of these citadels are still to be traced in various parts of Greece and Italy, all of which are constructed in the manner described. They are not fortified upon any regu- lar plan, nor have they any precise shape, but merely follow the outline of the summit on which they stand. The illustration here inserted is from a sketch of the Acropolis at Athens, as it now remains, with some columns of the temple of Jupiter Olympius in the plain below, which will serve to convey a general notion of the com- mon appearance of these fortresses. Like the Arx of Rome, it contains the principal temples of the deities who presided over the city, which were placed within the enclosure for the sake of protection. 2. Of the ARX at Rome no positive traces now remain, the site upon which it formerly stood being en- tirely covered with modern buildings. It occupied, however, the most northern and lofty of the two summits into which the crown of the Capitoline hill was divided, facing toward the Via Flaminia and Mons Esquilinus, and upon the area of which the church of Ara-celi (sup-- posed to be a corruption of Arce) now stands. Niebuhr, Hist. Rom. i. p. 502. transl. AS (from els, pronounced &s by the Tarentines). A piece of money, which represented the unit of value in the Roman and early Italian coin- ASCAULES. ASC1A. 61 age. Originally it weighed one pound, hence called as libralis; and was composed of a mixture of copper and tin («s), hence also called ces grave ; but the value was much re- duced in after times. In the age of Cicero, it was worth about three farthings of our money. In its earliest state it bore the impress of a bull, ram, boar, or sow, emblematic of the flocks and herds (pecus, whence the word pecunia), which constitute the wealth of all primitive ages ; afterwards the more usual device was a double-headed Janus on one side with the prow of a vessel (see SE- MISSIS), or of Mercury, the god of traffic, on the other, as shown by the example introduced above, drawn one-third the size of the original, which weighs in its present state 10 oz. 10 gr. ASC AU'LES (AneofaTjs). A word coined from the Greek, signifying Y&& a bag-piper. (Mart. Epigramm. x. 3. 8.) These men are scarcely to be rec- koned amongst the class of professed musicians ; for the instrument that they played was peculiar to the peasantry and common people, as is clearly to be in- ferred from the pas- sage of Martial (I. c.), and from the style and dress of the figure here introduced, which is copied from a small bronze figure formerly in the possession of Dr. Middleton, evidently intended to re- present a person of the lower classes. The ancient marbles and gems afford other specimens of the same subject. AS' CIA. The name given to several different implements em- ployed in separate trades, and for distinct purposes, all of which were classed under the same term, because they possessed a general resemblance in form, or the manner in which they were handled. They are as follows : — 1. cr/feTrapj/oi'. An instrument said to have been invented by Dse- dalus (Plin. H. N. vii. 57.), of com- mon use amongst all workers in wood, such as carpenters, wheel- wrights, shipwrights, &c. (XII. Tab. ap. Cic. Leg. ii. 23. Pet. Sat.74. 16.), and corresponding in some respects with the adze or addice of our day ; but with these important distinctions — that it was used for chopping sur- faces placed in an upright, instead of horizontal, position (see the illus- tration s. Ascio) ; had a shorter handle, so as to be used with one hand ; and was formed with a bluff head, like a hammer, at one extre- mity of the blade, whilst the opposite end, which formed the cutting edge, was slightly hollow, and curved over for the convenience of chopping into the hollow side of a piece of wood, or for scooping out flat surfaces, all which characteristics are distinctly shown by the example, which repre- sents two specimens, slightly dif- fering from one another, both copied from sepulchral marbles. 2. (ru/cosandruxos)- An instrument of nearly similar form, employed by masons and builders, to which allusion is often made 62 ASCIO. ASPERSIO. in sepulchral inscriptions. It had a hammer at one end, and a blade, like a bird's bill, at the other (Aristoph. Av. 1138. Schol. ad Z.), as seen in the illustration, which is copied from an original found, with several other building implements, at Pompeii. 3. An instrument used by brick- layers for chopping lime and mixing mortar (Vitruv. vii. 7. Pallad. i. 14.), as in the example from Trajan's Column, which represents part of a figure employed in the process de- scribed. 4. A short-handled hoe, used by gardeners, agricultural labourers, &c. for breaking up r^ the ground, ex- rTf^n !• , cavating earth, Jnt^ ~S*1!5 and similar pur- I / " \ poses. (Pallad. v Xj i. 43.) The il- lustration is from the Column of Trajan, and resembles both in use and form the zappa, or short hoe of the modern Italian peasant. AS'CIO (ffKeirapvifa). When ap- plied to wood-workers, to chop, form, or fashion with a carpenter's adze (ascia), an operation which the ancients performed with one hand, and upon surfaces placed in an upright position, as shown by the cut, which represents one of the workmen of Daedalus employed in this manner, from a bas-relief of the Villa Albani. 2. When applied to builders, to stir up and mix mortar with a plas- terer's hoe, as in the illustration to ASCIA, No. 3. ASCOPE'RA (oo-KOTrV)- A large bag, or knapsack, made of un- dressed leather, in which foot-tra- vellers carried their necessaries, as contradistinguished from hippopera, the horseman's saddlebags. (Suet. Nero, 45.) The illustration is se- lected from an ancient fresco paint- ing, representing a landscape scene. ASINA'RIUS. A farm servant who had the charge of feeding, driving, and tending the asses be- longing to the farm. Varro, R. R. i. 18. 1. ASPERGIL'LUM (irept^ar-Hj- ptov}. See the next word. ASPER'SIO. The act of sprink- ling with water, as a purification, before making sacrifice to the gods below (Cic. Leg, ii. 10. Compare Ov. Fast, v.679. Virg. JEn. iv. 635.); whereas the whole body, or the hands and face, were immersed previous to a sacrifice offered to the gods above. (Broiier, de Adorat. cap. 12.) This ceremony was performed either with ASSER. ASSERCULUM. 63 a branch of laurel ; as in the example from a medal, which represents La- under a thong (lorum, struppus) at- tached to these shafts, like the back- cilia, the daughter of M. Aurelius, breaking off a branch to sprinkle the young children, whilst a priestess is drawing water from the river ; or with a whisk made expressly for the purpose, as in the annexed engraving, i- also from a medal, and which the Greeks termed TTep^pavT^ptov or pdvTLffrpov. The corresponding Latin term is unknown ; for the word aspergillum, employed by modern philologists, is not supported by any ancient authority. ASSER. In general, a small wooden beam, pole or post fixed in or upon anything (Liv. Cses. Tac. ) ; whence the following more special meanings are deduced : — 1. The pole by which a palanquin (lecticd) was carried on the shoulders of its bearers. (Suet. Cal 58. Juv. iii. 245. Id. vii. 132. Mart. ix. 23. 9.) It was entirely separate from the con- veyance, and must not be confounded with the shafts (amites), which were permanently affixed to the body of the carriage, or at least only removeable upon occasion. The asser was passed band in single harness, and then raised upon the shoulders of the bearers (lecticarii), so that the whole weight of the carriage was sus- pended upon it. The subjoined en- graving, which represents a Chinese sedan, from Staunton, will make the matter perfectly clear, in the absence of any known ancient example. It is assumed to coincide with the Roman model, from the light it throws upon the different terms employed in con- nection with these conveyances, and the simple and natural explanation it affords upon those points which scholars have failed to reconcile ; besides that a moment's reflection will convince any one that a sedan could not be carried by six or eight men, as was frequently the case (hexaphoros, octaphoros), by any de- vice so convenient as the one de- picted. 2. An iron-headed beam suspended and worked like a ram on board ship, to damage the enemy's rigging. Veget. Mil. iv. 44. 3. Asser falcatus. A long pole, with a sharp and crooked iron head, used in sieges to mow down the gar- rison on the walls. Liv. xxxviii. 5. 4. Asseres. In architecture, the common rafters of a timber roof, over which the tiles are laid ; marked h h in the plan which illustrates the word MATERIATIO. Externally they are represented by the orna- ments called dentils (DENTICULUS, 2.) in Ionic and Corinthian elevations. Vitruv. iv. 2. 1. and 5. ASSER'CULUM and ASSER'- 64 ASSIS. ASTRAGALUS. CULUS. Diminutive of Asser ; any small pole or stake, and so used for a broom-handle. Cato, R. R. 152. Wood-CUt S. JEDITUUS. ASSIS (ffavis). A flat board or plank. Csss. Plin. Columell. Vitruv. 2. A valve in a water-pipe, or water-cock, by the turning of which the liquid is drawn off from, or re- tained in, the pipe. (Vitruv. x. 7. 1.) The example re- presents an original bronze cock, discovered in the island of Capri ; the contrivance for turning the valve is distinctly apparent at the top. ASSUS. Literally roasted ; hence, in the neuter gender, assum ; a cham- ber in a set of baths heated with warm air, with the object of pro- moting violent perspiration. Cic. Q. Fr. iii. 1.1. See SUDATIO, SUDA- TORIUM. 2. Assa tibia. A solo on the pipe, without any vocal accompaniment. Serv. ad Virg. G. ii. 417. 3. Assa nutrix. A dry nurse. Schol. Vet. ad Juv. Sat. xiv. 208. 4. Assi lapides. Stones laid with- out mortar (Serv. ad Virg. G. ii. 417.), in which way the finest of the Greek and Roman buildings were constructed. ASTR AG ALIZONTES (affrpaya- Ai£oi/Tes). A Greek name used to designate persons engaged in playing with the knuckle- bones of animals (arrrpa- 70X01, Latin Tali), one of which is here shown from an original of bronze, a very favourite subject with the sculptors and painters of Greece. (Plin. H. N. xxxiv. 19. § 2. Pausan. x. 30. 1.) Both sexes amused themselves in this way, and employed the knuckle-bones for many different games -, but the sim- plest and commonest, which appears to be represented in the annexed engraving, from a Greek painting discovered at Resina, resembled what our school-boys call "dibs," and consisted merely in throwing the bones up into the air, and catching them again on the back of the hand as they fall down. In many others, which were purely gambling games, the bones were marked with numbers, and used as dice. Jul. Poll. ix. 100—104. Bust. Od. i. p. 1397. 34. sq. and TALUS. ASTRA G'ALUS (ton-photos). The Greek name for one of the ver- tebral bones, the ball of the ankle-joint and the knuckle-bone of animals, which was used instead of dice for games of chance and skill, but is not employed in any of these senses by the Latin writers. 2. By the Roman architects, an astragal ,• a small moulding of semi- circular profile, so termed by the ancients from a certain resemblance j which it bears, in its alternation of j round and angular forms, to a row of knuckle-bones (ao-TpdyaXos, and last i cut but one), placed side by side ; and called a bead or baguette by the moderns, because it closely resembles a string of beads or berries. It is more especially characteristic of the Ionic order, in which it is employed to form the lowermost member of the capital immediately under the echi- nus, to divide the faces of an archi- trave, or in the base, where it is a ASTURCO. ATRIUM. 65 plain moulding, similar to the torus, but of smaller dimensions. (Vitruv. iv. 1. 11. Id. iii. 4. 7. Id. iii. 5. 3.) The first of the two specimens here given is from a capital of the temple of Apollo, near Miletus ; the lower one from the temple of Minerva at Priene. ASTUR'CO. A small horse of the Spanish Asturian breed ; highly valued by the Romans on account of its showy action and easy paces. Plin. H.N. viii. 67. Mart. xiv. 199. ATHLE'TvE (dex-nrai). A gene- ral name for the combatants who con- tended for a prize (50Aoi/), in the public games of Greece and Italy ; of whom there were five kinds, each dis- tinguished by an appropriate name, viz. CURSOR, LUCTATOR, PUGIL, QUINQUERTIO, PANCRATIASTES. ATLANTES CArAai/TeO- Pro- perly a Greek term (to which the Latin TELAMONES corresponds), used to designate human figures, when em- ployed as architectural supports to an entablature or cornice, instead of columns, and so termed in allusion to the story of Atlas, who bore the heavens on his shoulders. (Vitruv. vi. 10.) One of these figures is given under ARCULUS, from a spe- cimen at Pompeii. ATRAMENTA'RIUM (^Aar- SoXl)- A vessel for holding atra- mentum, a black liquid employed for various purposes, as varnish, by painters (Plin. H. N. xxxv. 36. n. 18.) ; by shoemakers for dyeing their leather (Plin. H. N. xxxiv. 32.) ; and also for writing ink (Cic. Q. Fr. ii. 15.), in reference to which last use the term answers to our ink-stand (Gloss. Philox. Vulgat. Ezech. ix. 2.), one of which is shown in ARUNDO 5. ATRIEN'SIS. A domestic slave, or one who belonged to ihefamilia ur- bana in all the great Roman houses, to whose especial charge the care of the Atrium was committed. He occupied a position not unlike that of maitre d*hotfl in the present day ; for he exer- cised a control over all the other slaves of the household, took charge of the busts, statues, and valuables exposed in the atrium, set out and arranged the furniture, and saw that it was kept clean, and nothing damaged. Plaut. Asin. passim, and especially Act. ii. Sc. 2. and 4. Cic. Farad, v. 2. ATRI'OLUM. Diminutive of Atrium, and thus, in a general sense, any small atrium ; but the word has also a more special application, and designates a distinct member in the large Roman palaces, which might be styled the second or back atrium ; for it was disposed with sleeping rooms and other members all round it, similar to those of the principal one, from which it chiefly differed in size, and perhaps in splendour. Cic. Q. Fr. iii. 1. 1. Id. Ait. i. 10. A'TRIUM. A large apartment, constituting the first of the two prin- cipal parts into which the ground- plan of a Roman house was divided. It was approached directly from the entrance hall or passage (prothyrum), and in early times served the family as the common place of reunion, or public room of the house, in which the women worked at their looms, the family statues and ancestral images were displayed, the household gods and their altar, as well as the kitchen hearth (focus), were situated. Its relative position with regard to the rest of the mansion is shown in the two first ground-plans which illus- trate the word DOMUS, on which it is marked B. As regards the internal structure, it consisted of a rectangular apart- ment, the sides of which were covered over with a roof, having in most cases an aperture in the centre (complu- vium), and a corresponding basin in the floor (impluvium), to receive the rain water which flowed in through the opening (see the next wood-cut). The roof itself was frequently supported upon columns, which thus formed a colonnade or open cloister round its sides (see wood-cut No. 3.). But as 66 ATRIUM. the roof was constructed and sup- ported in several different ways, each of which gave a different cha- racter to the interior, these varieties were classed under the following separate names, to distinguish the different styles adopted in their con- struction : — 1. Atrium Tuscanicum. The Tus- can atrium ; the simplest and pro- bably most ancient of all, which was adopted at Rome from the Etruscans, and could only be em- ployed for an apartment of small dimensions. Its peculiarity consisted in not having any columns to support the roof, which ran round its sides, and was carried upon two beams placed lengthwise from wall to wall, into which two shorter ones were mortized at equal distances from the wall, so as to form a square opening trastyle atrium, so termed because its roof was supported upon four columns, one at each angle of the impluvium. The illustration affords a specimen of this style from a house at Pompeii, excavated by General Championet; from the preceding example, it is easy to imagine a restoration of the roof, which, when it rests upon the four columns, will form a covered gallery round the sides of the room, with an opening in the centre between them, similar to the one there shown, but with the decoration of a column at each of its corners. 3. Atrium Corinthium. The Co- rinthian atrium, which was of the same description as the last, but of greater size and magnificence, inas- much as the columns which supported in the centre between them (Vitruv. i. 6. 2.), as seen in the engraving above, which presents a restoration of the Etruscan atrium to the house of Sallust at Pompeii. 2. Atrium Tetrastylum. The te- its roof were more numerous, and placed at a distance back from the impluvium. The central part was also open to the sky, as in the ex- ample, from a Corinthian atrium at Pompeii, restored after the pattern of a house which was discovered with its upper story entire at Herculaneum, and an elevation of which is intro- duced in the article DOMUS. In this style of construction, one end of every beam which bore the roof, and formed a ceiling to the colonnade round the room, rested upon the head of each column, the other one upon the side wall, instead of being placed parallel to it, as in the Tuscan and tetrastyle ; they are thus arranged at ATTEGIA. AUGUR. 67 right angles to the walls, or in other ! words, recede from them, which is j what is meant hy the expression of Vitruvius, a parietibus recedunt. 4. Atrium displuviatum. An atrium, the roof of which was formed in a shelving di- rection, with the slant turned out- wards from the compluvium, in- stead of towards it, and which, therefore, shot off the water from the house into gutters on the outside, instead of conducting it into the im- pluvium, as in the three preceding instances. Such a plan of construc- tion is clearly shown in the diagram annexed, from the marble plan of Rome, where the opening in the cen- tre and the outward shelve of the roof is very cleverly expressed. 5. Atrium testudinatum. The tes- tudinated or covered atrium, which had no compluvium, the whole apartment being entirely covered over by a roof of the kind termed testudo (Vitruv. v. 1.), which is also cleverly expressed by the artist who executed the marble plan of Rome, from which the illustration is selected. It is probable that an atrium of this description consisted of two stories, and that it received its light from windows in the upper one. Compare also CAVAEDIUM. ATTEG'IA. A Moorish hut or wigwam made of reeds and thatch. Juv. Sat. xiv. 196. AUCEPS O'leuTTjs, opvieevr-fjs'). In a general sense, a fowler or any person who amuses himself with the sport of snaring, netting, and killing birds ; but in a more special sense, a slave belonging to the familia rustica, something like our " game- keeper," whose employment consisted in taking and selling game for the profit of his owner ; the principal sources of income on some estates being derived from the produce of the woods and fisheries. (Ov. A. Am. iii. 669. Plaut. Trin. ii. 4. 7. Pignorius de Serv. p. 560.) The illustration, from a small marble statue at Naples, represents one of these fowlers returning with his game. He wears a sportsman's hat and — ^—^ — -- boots, a tunic and cloak of skin with the fur on, carries a hunting knife in his right hand, two doves slung to the girdle round his waist, a hare on his left arm, and the end of the noose in which it was caught appears between the fingers. The instruments em- ployed by the ancient fowlers in the pursuit of their sport were gins and snares (laquei, pedicts), a rod tipped with bird lime (arundo, calamus), traps (transennae), clap-nets (amites), a call- bird (avis illex), and cage for the same (caved) ; the manner of using all which is described, and illustrated under each head. AUDITORIUM, Any place in which orators, poets, and authors generally, assembled an audience to hear their compositions recited. Quint, ii. 11. 3. Id. x. i. 36. 2. A lecture-room, in which philo- sophers and professors delivered their lectures. Suet. Tib. 11. 3. A court of justice where trials were heard. Paul. Dig. 49. 9. 1. Ulp. Dig. 4. 4. 18. 4. Auditorium Principis. The court or chamber in which the em- peror sat to hear and decide causes. Paul. Dig. 42. 1. 54. AUGUR (ojWoo-Koiros). An augur, a Roman priest, who inter- preted the will of the gods, or re- vealed future events from observa- tions taken on the flight and singing of birds. (Liv. i. 36. Cic. Div. i. 17.) They were formed into a college or corporation ; and are K 2 68 AUGURALE. AUL^EA. principally distinguished from other classes of the priesthood, on coins and medals, by a crooked wand (lituus), like a crozier, which they carried in the right hand, and sometimes with the sacred bird, and the waterjug (capis) by their side or on the reverse. The example is from a medal of Marcus Anto- ninus. AUGURA'LE. A space on the right side of the general's tent (prce- torium) in a Roman camp, where the auspices were taken. Tac. Ann. xv. 30. Compare Quint, viii. 2. 8. AUGUSTA'LES. An order of priests instituted by Augustus, and selected from the class of freed-men, whose duty it was to superintend the religious ceremonies connected with the worship of the Lares Compi- tales, deities who presided over the cross roads, to whom it was customary to erect a shrine at the spot where these roads met. Pet. Sat. 30. 2. Orelli, Inscr. 3959. Schol. Vet. ad Hor. Sat. ii. 3. 281. 2. Sodales Augustales, or simply Augustales. An order of priests in- stituted by Tiberius, to superintend the divine honours paid to Augustus and the Julian family. The body consisted of twenty-one persons se- lected from the principal Roman families. Tac. Ann. i. 15. and 54. Reines. Inscr. i. 12. AULA CauA^). Properly a Greek word, which in early times designated an open court or court-yard in front of a house, around which the stables, stalls for cattle, and farming out- houses were situated ; hence the Roman poets adopted the word to express a dog-kennel (Grat. Cyneg. 167.), a sheep pen (Prop. iii. 2. 39), or a den for wild animals. Pet. Sat. 119. 17. 2. Subsequently to the age of Homer, the Greek aula was an open peristyle in the interior of a house, of which there were two in every mansion (Vitruv. vi. 7. 5.) ; one round which the men's apartments were disposed, and the other for the exclusive use of the females. In other respects, they corresponded in general arrangement and distribution to the atrium and peristylium of a Roman house: see the plan of the Greek house s.v. DOMUS, on which the two aulce are marked respectively c and E. In allusion to this sense of the word, Virgil uses it for the cell of the queen bee. JEn. iii. 353. 3. Aula regia. The central por- tion of the scene in the Greek and Roman theatres, especially for tragic performances, representing a noble mansion (Vitruv. v. 6. 8.), near or in which the action was supposed to take place. The illustration repre- sents a view of the great theatre at Pompeii, with the scene at the further end, from which the general character of this part of the building may be readily imagined, though the whole of its upper portion has de- cayed. 4. An old form of spelling (Cato, R. R. 85.) for OLLA, which see. AUL^'A or AUL^'UM (auAoto). A piece of tapestry or arras hangings used to decorate the walls of a dining room (Hor. Sat. ii. 8. 54.), or as a screen against the sun between the pillars of a colonnade (Prop. ii. 32. 12.), or to close in the open galleries round an atrium or peristy- lium of private houses, as shown in the elevation of the Herculanean house (s. v. DOMUS), in which the rods and rings for suspending them were found AUL^SA. AUREUS. in their places, when the excavation was made. In the illustration, from a bas-relief in the British Museum, the aulceum forms the background to a tricliniary chamber ; and similar ones are of very common occurrence both in sculpture and paintings, where they are introduced by the artist as a conventional sign to indicate that the scene in which they appear is not laid in the open air, but takes place in an interior. 2. A large coverlet of tapestry or embroidered work, which it was cus- tomary to spread over the mattress of a sofa or dining couch (Virg. JEn. i. 697.), and which hung down to the ground all round it ; whence also termed Peristroma. It is seen in the preceding wood-cut, but more dis- tinctly in the annexed one from the Vatican Virgil. 3. A piece of tapestry, or curtain ornamented with figures embroi- dered on it (Virg. G. iii. 25.), em- ployed in the Greek and Roman theatres, for the same purpose as our drop-scene, to conceal the stage before the commencement of the play, and between the acts. This curtain, how- ever, was not suspended like ours, and let down from above ; but, on the contrary, was rolled round a cy- linder let into a recess in the brick- work fronting the stage, as is clearly seen on the left hand of the annexed en- graving, which represents a perspec- tive view of the small theatre at Pom- peii looking across the stage, and the orchestra which lies on the right hand. When the play commenced, the curtain was let down, and consequently after an act it was drawn up (Ovid. Met. iii. Ill — 114.); whence the expression aulcea premuntur (Hor. Epist. ii. 1. 189. Compare Apul. Met. x. p. 232.), " the drop scene is let down," implies that the play is about to commence ; and avlcea tolluntur (Ov. Met. I. c.), " the scene is raised up," that the act or play was ended. AUL(E'DUS(adAp8<k). One who sings to the accompaniment of a flute or pipe. Cic. Mur. 13. AURES. The earth or mould boards of a plough, placed on each side of the share-beam, and inclining outwards, in order to throw off the earth turned up by the share into a ridge on each side of the furrow. (Virg. G. i. 172.) They are shown in the engraving s. v. ARATRUM 2. by the letters EE. AU'REUS. Called also nummus aureus, or denarius aureus ; a guilder, or golden denarius, the stand- ard gold coin of the Romans, which passed for twenty -five denarii, or 1 7s. 8^d. ; but the intrinsic value, as compared with our gold coinage at 70 AURIGA. the present day, would nearly equal I/. Is. Ifd. (Plin. H.N. xxxiii. 13. Suet. Cal. 42. Id. Dom. 8. Hussey on ancient Weights and Money.). The illustration is from an original in its actual state. AURFGA (fyioxos). In general any person who acted as a coachman or charioteer, as shown by the ex- ample from a terra-cotta bas-relief. the ordinary style, shown in the first cut, as will be perceived by the annexed example, which is copied Virg. Mn. xii. 624. Ovid. Met. ii. 327. 2. But, more especially, the driver of a racing car in the Circus at the Circensian games. (Suet. Cal 54.) The example here given is from a statue in the Vati- can, which, if com- pared with the next illustration, will af- ford a perfect notion of the costume worn by these drivers. The palm branch in the right hand is the emblem of vic- tory ; the purse in the left contains the sum of money which formed the prize. The man- ner in which these men drove was peculiar, and differed materially from from a consular diptych ; and as the original is the work of a late period, when the arts were at a low ebb, it is to be regarded as a more faithful representation of the actual truth un- adorned by any attempts at artistic effect or ideal portraiture. The driver here passes the reins round his back, or actually stands within them ; the object of which was to give him more command over his horses, by leaning his whole weight back against the reins, and to prevent the chance of their falling from his hands in case of any sudden shock or collision. But as this practice ex- posed him to the danger of being dragged in his reins in case of an upset, he carried a crooked knife fixed to the thongs which braced his body, as seen in front of the left side in the preceding figure, in order to cut them on the emergency. The last example also shows the skull cap which he wore on his head, as well as the bandages round the legs, and on the back of the hands ; the horses' legs are also bandaged, their tails are tied up, their manes are hogged, and a mask is placed over the front of their faces. 3. By poets the word is also ap- plied less specially, for a groom who brought out a carriage or war car, and stood at the horses' heads till the driver mounted (Virg. ^En. xii. 85.) ; for a helmsman (Ovid. Trist. i. 4. 16.) ; and generally for a horseman or rider. (Auct. Paneg. ad Pison. 49.) AUR1GARIUS. AXICIA. 71 AURIGA'RIUS. Same as AURIGA. Suet, Nero. 5. AURIG A'TOR. Same as AURIGA. Inscript. ap. Grut. 340. 3. AURI'GO and AURI'GOR. To drive a chariot in the races of the Circus, as described under AURIGA. Suet. Nero. 24. Plin. H. N. xxxiii. 27, AURISCALP'IUM (t>roy\v<t>is). An ear-pick (Mart. Ep. xiv. 23.) ; — also a surgeon's probe for the ear. (Scribon. Compos. 230.) The ex- ample represents an original found at Pompeii. AUS'PEX. One who takes the auspices, or in other words, who observes the flight, singing, or feeding of birds, in order to discover there- from the secrets of futurity. Cic. Att. ii. 7. Hor. Od. iii. 27. 8. AUTHEP'SA (aMetoO- A word coined from the Greek, meaning in its literal sense a self -boiler (Cic. Rose. Am. 46. Lamprid. Elag. 19.), from which it is reasonably inferred to have been an apparatus which con- tained its own fire and heaters for water, so as to be adapted for cook- ing in any part of a house ; and con- sequently of the same description as the specimen here introduced, from a bronze original found at Pompeii. The sides, which are of considerable thick- ness, and hollow, contained water ; and a small cock projects from one of them (the left hand in the engraving) to draw it off ; the four towers at the angles are provided with moveable lids ; the centre received the lighted charcoal; and if a trivet or other vessel was placed over it, such an apparatus would admit of many pro- cesses in cooking, with great economy of trouble and expense. Many other contrivances of the same sort have been discovered at Pompeii, similar in regard to the principle upon which they are constructed, and only dif- fering in the pattern or design. AUTOPY'ROS^-nJTTvpos). Brown- bread, made of coarse flour with the bran in it. Plin. H.N. xxii. 68. Petr. Sat. 66. 2. Celsus, ii. 18. AVE'NA. A Pandean pipe made with the stalk of the wild oat, such as was used by the peasantry. Virg. Tibull. Ov. Met. viii. 192. ARUNDO. No. 6. AVER'TA. A saddle-bag, which was probably placed on the rump of an animal, as now commonly prac- tised in Italy. Acron. ad Hor. Sat. i. 6. 106. AVERTA'RIUS. A beast of burden, which carries the averta, or saddle-bag, upon his rump. Impp. Valent. et Valens. Cod. Theodos. 8. 5. 22 ' A~VIA'RIUM. A poultry yard. Varro, R. R. iii. 3. 7. 2. An aviary, in which birds of choice kinds, and rare breeds were kept. Varro, I. c. 3. A decoy or preserve for aquatic birds. Columell. viii. 1. 4. AVIA'RIUS. A slave who had the charge of breeding, feeding, and fattening poultry. Columell. viii. 3, ' AVICULA'RIUS. Apic. viii. 7. Same as preceding. AXICIA. A word only met with in a single passage of Plautus (Cure. iv. 4. 21.), which the dictionaries and commentators interpret, a pair of scissors. But the reading or the in- terpretation seems very doubtful ; for the instrument used by the ancients for the same purposes as our scissors, was termed FORFEX by the Romans ; and in the passage of Plautus, the axicia is enumerated as an article of the toilet, with the comb, tweezers, looking-glass, curling-irons, and towel ; but a pair of scissors, though useful enough on a modern dressing table, would be far less appropriate to 72 AXIS. BACILLUM. the Roman toilet, if regard is had to the difference of ancient habits. AXIS («{»v). The axle-tree of a carriage to which the pole is affixed, and round which the wheels revolve (Ov. Met. ii. 317.), which is clearly seen in the illustration from an ancient bronze car preserved in the Vatican ; but in waggons of the kind called plaustra, the axle tree was not a fixture, but revolved together with the wheels in nuts or sockets screwed on to the bottom of the cart ; see ARTEMON. 2. Axis versatilis. A revolving cylinder, such as is worked by a windlass for drawing up weights, by twist- ing the cord round about itself, like the roller and windlass by which a bucket is drawn out of a well, as illustrated by the annexed engraving from a marble sarco- phagus in the Vatican cemetery. Vitruv. ix. 8. 8. 3. The upright axis of a door, which worked in sockets let into the upper and lower lintel, and so formed a pivot upon which the door turned when opened or shut. Stat. Theb. i.349. See ANTEPAGMENTUM and CARDO. 4. The valve of a water pipe or cock ; in which sense the proper reading is Assis. 5. A plank ; also properly written Assis. B. BABYLON'ICUM. A shawl of Babylonian manufacture, which was highly prized amongst the Romans for its fine texture and brilliant colours. Lucret. iv. 1027. P. Syrus ap. Petr. Sat 55. 6. BACCHA (Bcfox*?). A Bac- chante ; a female who celebrates the mysteries of Bacchus. (Ovid. Her. x. 48.) They are frequently repre- sented in works of art, and described by the poets (Ov. Met vi. 591.), as in the illustration, with a wreath of vine leaves or ivy round the head, loose flowing hair, a mantle made of kid-skin, on the left side, and the thyrsus in the right hand, running like madwomen through the streets. The figure here introduced, which is from a bas-relief of the Villa Borghese, in- stead of the skin on her person, car- ries part of a kid in her left hand. BACILLUM (frucrtipior). A small staff, stick, or cane ; a walking- stick, sometimes as with us artificially BACULUS. BALINE^E. 73 bent into form. (Cic. Fin. ii. 11. Juv. Sat iii. 28.) The example is from a painting at Pompeii, and represents Ulysses. 2. Varro, R. R. 50. 2. See FALX DENTICULATA. BAC'ULUS and BAC'ULUM (jScS/tT/joi'). A long stick or staff, such as was com- monly carried by travellers, rustics, shepherds, and goat- herds (whence termed agreste. Ov. Met. xv. 654.); by infirm or aged per- sons of both sexes (Ov. Met. vi. 27.); and also, out of af- fectation, by the Greek philosophers. (Mart. Ep. iv. 53.) The illustration, from a MS. of Virgil in the Vatican library, represents one of the shepherds of the Eclogues leaning on his staff, precisely as described by Ovid, in- cumbens or innitens baculo (Met. xiv. 655. Fast. i. 177.) ; an attitude also of daily occurrence amongst the peasants of the Roman Campagna. 2. (o-KTjTTTpo*'.) A long staff, which, in early times, was carried by kings and persons in authority, both as a mark of distinction and a defensive weapon. In works of art it is always represented of greater length than the rustic staff, as may be seen by the annexed figure of Agamemnon, from a marble vase of Greek sculpture, and it is sometimes described as being ornamented with gold and silver. (Florus, iv. 11. 3. Id. iii. 19. 10.) It was the original of the regal sceptre; and in consequence was used on the tragic stage by actors who personated kingly characters. (Suet. Nero, 24.) But the word, when used in this sense by the Latin writers, is mostly adopted in order to characterise, and to ridicule, fo- reign, and especially Asiatic, manners. Florus. //. cc. BAJULATO'RIUS. Which serves or is adapted for carrying. Sella bajulatoria. See SELLA. BAJ'ULUS (ywTo<p6f>os, Qopr-nyts'). A porter, or any person who carries burdens on his back, as shown in the illustration from a painting in a sepulchral chamber at Rome. Plaut. Pcen. v. 6. 17. Cic. Par. iii. 2. 2. In the Roman household, a slave who performed the same duties as the porter of a modern establish- ment, such as carrying parcels, letters, &c. Hieron. Ep. 6. ad Julian, n. 1. BALIN'E^E or BAL'NE^. A set of public baths, including conve- niences for warm and cold bathing, as well as sudorific or vapour baths, and provided with a double set of apartments for the male and the female sex. Varro, L. L. viii. 48. Id. ix. 64. The system upon which the bathing 74 BALINE^E. establishments of the Romans were arranged, and the ingenious method of their construction, will be best understood by the annexed ground- plan and description of the double set of baths at Pompeii. Views and elevations of the various apartments in detail are given separately under each of their respective names. They had six distinct entrances, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, from the street ; of which the three first were for visitors ; 4 and 5 for the slaves and purposes connected with the business of the establish- ment ; and the last gave access to the women's baths, which have no inter- communication with the larger set. To commence the circuit by the first door (1), at the bottom of the plan on the left hand. «-. Latrina, a privy. b. An open court, surrounded by a colonnade on three of its sides, which formed a sort of Atrium to the rest of the edifice. cc. Stone seats along one side of the court for the slaves who were awaiting the return of their masters from the interior, or for the accommo- dation of the citizens, in like manner expecting the return of their friends. d. A recessed chamber, either in- tended as a waiting- room for visitors ; or probably appropriated to the use of the superintendant of the baths. e. Another latrina, near the second principal entrance (2), from which a corridor, turning sharp to the right, leads into A. The apodyterium, or undressing- room, which has a communication with each of the principal entrances, and with each of the apartments destined for the various purposes of hot and cold bathing. ff. Seats of masonry on each side of the room, for the bathers to dress and undress upon. B. The friyidarium, or chamber containing the cold water bath (bap- tisteriurn). ff. A room for the use of the garde-robe, who took charge of the wearing apparel, kept for its owners while bathing. c. The tepidarium, or tepid cham- ber; the atmosphere of which was kept at an agreeable warmth by means of a brazier, found in it. It was intended to break the sudden change of tempe- rature from heat to cold, as the bather returned from the thermal chamber to the open air. This apartment served also in the present instance as a place for being scraped with the strigil, and anointed after bathing (see the illustration to ALIPTES) ; for the convenience of which it was furnished with two bronze seats found in the room, and the walls were likewise divided all round into small recesses, forming so many closets or lockers, which might contain the strigils, oils, unguents, and other necessaries for the use of those who did not bring their own with them. A door from this department con- ducted the bather into D. The caldarium, or thermal chamber ; which contains (A) a hot water bath (alveus) at one extremity, and the Laconicum, with its basin or labrum (£), at the other. The flooring of the room is hollow underneath, being suspended upon low brick pillars, and the walls are also fitted with flues, so that the whole apart- ment was surrounded by hot air, supplied from an adjoining furnace. BALINE^E. BALINEUM. 75 See the illustration to SUSPENSURA and HYPOCAUSTUM. /. The furnace, which, besides the use above mentioned, also heated the coppers containing the water for the baths ; viz. m. The caldarium, or copper for hot water ; and n. The tepidarium, or copper for tepid water. o. The cold water cistern. p. A room for the slaves who had charge of the furnace and its appen- dages, furnished with a separate en- trance from the street (4), and two staircases, one of which led up to the roof, and the other down to the fur- nace. q. A small passage, connecting the last-named apartment with r. The yard, where all the things necessary for the service of this part of the establishment, such as wood, charcoal, &c., were kept. It has also its own separate entrance from the street (5), and the remains of two pillars, which originally supported a roof or a shed, are still visible. The remaining portion of the plan is occupied by another set of baths, appropriated for females, which are more confined in point of space, but arranged upon a similar principle. They have but one en- trance (6), which gives access to a small waiting-room (s), with seats for the same use and purposes as those marked cc in the larger set. E. The apodyterium, with seats on two of its sides (t *), and which, like the one first described, communicates with the frigidarium, or cold water bath (F), and with the tepidarium, or tepid chamber (o), through which the bather passes on, as he did in the preceding case, to the thermal cham- ber (H), provided in the same manner with its Laconicum and labrum (u) at one end, and its alveus, or hot water bath (M>), on the side contiguous to the furnace and boilers, which are thus conveniently situated, so as to supply both sets of baths with hot air and warm water by a single ap- paratus. In these baths for the women, the tepidarium has a sus- pended floor and walls fitted with flues, which is not the case in the corresponding apartment of the larger set. 2. Vitruvius (vi. 5. 1.) used the same term to designate a private bath in a man's own house ; but this, according to Varro (I c.), is not a strictly accurate usage. See the following word. BALIN'EUM or BAL'NEUM. A private bath, or the suite of bathing rooms belonging to a private house (Varro, L. L. ix. 68. Cic. Fam. xiv. 20.) ; as contradistin- guished from the plural Balineoe, applied to the public establishments, which commonly comprised two sets of baths, with distinct and separate accommodation for both sexes, and consequently more extensive and numerous dependencies. In other respects the distribution and arrange- ments of the several apartments were upon a similar principle in both cases, as will be seen by comparing the members in the annexed wood- cut, which presents the ground-plan of the baths belonging to the sub- urban villa of Arrius Diomedes at Pompeii, with those of the public baths described and illustrated in the preceding article. The baths and heir appurtenances occupied an ngle at one extremity of the whole L 2 76 BA.LINEUM. BALNEARIS. pile of building, and were entered from the atrium through a door at a. Immediately on the right of the entrance is a small room (6), perhaps used as a waiting-room, or intended for the slaves attached to this de- partment of the household. Beyond this is the apodyterium, or undressing- room (A), situated between the cold and hot baths, and having a separate entrance into both of them. B is a small triangular court, par- tially covered by a colonnade on two of its sides ; in the centre of which and in the open air, excepting that it had a roof over head, supported upon two columns at opposite angles, was the cold water bath (c) — piscina in area. Plin. Ep. v. 6. 26. c is the tepid chamber (tepidarium), with a seat in one corner, upon which the bather sat to be scraped and anointed after the bath. D. The caldarium, or thermal chamber, arranged exactly as in the public baths, with the Laconicum at the circular end, and an alveus, or hot water bath, at the opposite extremity. d is the reservoir, which contained a general supply of water from the aqueduct ; e, a room for the use of the slaves who served the furnaces, which had a stone table in it (e), and a stair- case leading to an upper story, or to the roof; /, the cistern for cold water ; g, the boiler for tepid water ; h, the boiler for hot water; i, the furnace ; all of which are disposed in the same manner as those of the public establishments, and with the same regard for the saving of fuel and water. See CALDARIUM, TEPI- DARIUM, FRIGIDARIUM. 2. Sometimes the same word is used in a more confined sense for the hot water bath (alveus) ; seen at the square end of the room D in the last wood-cut, and at the letter h in the preceding one. Cic. Att. ii. 3. Pet. Sat. 72. Celsus, iii. 24. BALL'ISTA or BAL'ISTA (Ai0og<J\oy, or -oi/). An engine used at sieges for hurling ponderous masses of stone. (Lucil. Sat. xxviii. p. 61. 23. Gerlach. Cic. Tusc. ii. 24. Tacit. Hist. iv. 23.) Neither the descrip- tions of the Latin authors, nor the monuments of art enable us to form a distinct notion of the manner in which these machines were con- structed ; and the different attempts of modern antiquaries to restore a specimen from the words of Vitru- vius (x. 11.) and of Ammianus (xxiii. 4. § 1 — 3.), must be regarded as too uncertain and conjectural to be invested with any degree of authority. They were, however, made of different dimensions, called majores and minores (Liv. xxvi. 47.) ; and some were used as field engines, being placed upon carriages and drawn by horses or mules, so that they could be readily transported to any position on the field of battle, thence termed CARROBALLISTM;, one of which is represented on the column of Antoninus. We have sub- sequently introduced it as an illus- tration to that word ; and it may serve to convey a general notion as to what these machines were like ; but is far too imperfect and deficient in detail to afford any approximation towards a distinct understanding of the exact principle upon which they were constructed. BALLISTA'RIUM or BALIST. An arsenal or magazine in which ballistcB are kept. Plaut. Pcen. i. 1. 74. BALLISTA'RIUS or BALIST. A soldier who worked or discharged a ballista ; ranked amongst the light- armed troops. Ammian. 16. 2. § 5. Veget. Mil. ii. 2. BALNEA. See BALINEJS. BALNEA'RIA. Used absolutely to express collectively all the imple- ments, vessels, and necessaries used in the bath, such as strigils, oil, per- fumes, towels, &c. Apul. Met. iii. p. 51. Compare Lamprid. Alex. Sev. 42. Paul. Dig. 34. 2. 33. BALNEA'RIS, sc. fur. Catull. xxxiii. 1. A fellow who made a livelihood by stealing the clothes of BALNEARIA. BALTEUS. 77 poor people, who had no slaves of their own to take care of them, from the public baths while their owners were bathing ; for at Rome every one was compelled by law to strip himself in the undressing-room before he was permitted to enter the bathing apart- ments (Cic. Ccel. 26.), the object of which was to prevent the property or utensils of the establishment from being purloined, and concealed under the dress. BALNEA'RIA. Absolutely, for a set of baths, or bathing chambers. Cic. Q. Fr. iii. ].l. See BALINE.E and BALINEUM. BALNEA'TOR. The keeper of a set of baths. Cic. Ccel 26. BALNEA'TRIX. The mistress of a set of baths, or who has charge of the women's department of the same. Petr. ap. Serv. JEn. xii. 159. BAL'NEUM. See BALINEUM. BALTEA'RIUS. The master or keeper of the belts (baltei\ an officer in the Imperial household, whose duty it was to provide and keep in the wardrobe those articles of use and ornament. In script, ap. Reines. cl. 8. n. 69. Spon. Miscell Erud. Ant. p. 253. BALTE'OLUS. Diminutive of BALTEUS. BAL'TEUS or BAL'TEUM (reXafji&v). A baldric or shoulder belt, passed over one shoulder, and under the other, for the purpose of sus- pending the sword, in the same manner as our soldiers carry their side- arms. (Quint. xi. 3. 140.) It was fastened in front by a buckle (Virg. Mn. v. 314.), and frequently enriched with studs (bullce) of gold or precious stones (Virg. /. c.), both of which particulars are distinctly illustration, from a visible in the trophy at Rome, commonly known as " the trophies of Marius," but in reality belonging to the age of Trajan. 2. The Greek soldiers of the Homeric age also used a similar belt to carry their shields by ; and, conse- quently, wore two of them at the same time. Horn. 77. xiv. 404. 3. A similar kind of belt, also de- signated by the same term, was used in like manner for suspending a quiver from the shoulders (Virg. ^En. v. 313. Nemes. Cyneg. 91.), and a musical instrument, like the lyre or guitar from the neck. (Apul. Flor. ii. 15. 2.) See the illustrations to PHARETRATUS, 3. and LYRISTRIA, which afford examples of a belt ap- plied in both of these ways. 4. An ornamental belt or band, sometimes decorated with gold and sil- ver studs, or with embroidery, which was placed round a horse's neck and breast, below the mantle or throat- band, and from which bells were often suspended. ( Apul. Met. x. p. 224.) The illustration is from a fictile vase : compare the example under TINTINNABULATUS, which is plain, and with a bell hanging from it. 5. Less accurately, and particu- larly by the poets, a girdle round the waist (Lucan. ii. 361. Sil. Ital. x. 181. CINGULUM), and a horse's girth round the body. Claud. Ep. xxi. and xx. See CINGULA. 6. The broad flat belt in the sphere, which contains the twelve signs of the Zodiac, and represents the sun's course through them (Manilius, iii. 334.), as shown by the engraving, which is copied from a painting at Pompeii. 78 BALTEUS. BAPTISTERIUM. 7. The band which encircles the bolster or cushion on the side of an Ionic capital ; in technical language, the band or girdle of the bolsters. (Vitruv. xi. 5. 7.) It is often covered with sculpture, as in the example, which represents a side view of a capital belonging to the temple of Minerva Polias. 8. In a theatre or amphitheatre, a wall or belt, which formed a line of demarcation between one tier of (Manianum) and another. (Calpurn. Eel vi. 47.) The object of this was to prevent the different classes of spectators from passing over from the places assigned to their respective orders into other parts of the building where they were not entitled to sit; as for instance, from an upper circle into a lower one. The illustration presents a view in the larger theatre at Pom- peii, and shows a portion of two nueniana, or tiers of seats, separated by the balteus between them. It will be understood that this belt, which here is only a fragment, ran uninterruptedly round the entire range of seats. The visitors, upon entering the theatre, walked round the covered gallery shown by the large dark arch on the right hand, until they came to either of the small doors (vomitoria), through which they passed into the interior, and descended the staircases in front of them until they came to the row or step (gradus} in which their respec- tive places were situate. Another balteus is seen above, also with two of its doors, which separated the second mcenianum from the seats above. It will also be observed that the covered passage which encircles the first mcenianum has no commu- nication with the one above, which was approached by a separate cor- ridor of its own, connected with a distinct set of staircases in the ex- ternal shell of the building. BAPHI'UM (0o(/>eToj/). A dyer's establishment. Inscript. ap. Carli, Antich. Ital torn. 3. p. 14. Procu- ratori Baphii Cissce Histrice. Lam- prid. Alex. Sev. 40. Strabo, xvi. 2. § 23. BAPTISTE'RIUM (0*™^- piov). Properly a Greek word (Si- don. Ep. ii. 2.), though not extant in any Greek author. A cold plung- ing bath, constructed in the cella BARBATULUS. BARB1TOS. 79 friyidaria. (Plin. Ep. ii. 17. 11. Id. v. 6. 25.) The illustration pre- sents a view of the cold bath, and room which contains it, as now re- maining at Pompeii. The bath itself (baptisterium) is a circular marble basin, of 12 feet 9 inches diameter, indented with two steps, and having a short low seat at the bottom (on the left hand in the engraving), upon which the bather might sit and wash. 2. Amongst the ecclesiastical writers, or subsequently to the es- tablishment of Christianity ; a building distinct from the church in which the baptismal font was placed (Sidon. Ep. iv. 15.) ; of which the baptistery built by Constantine near the church of S. Giovanni Laterano, at Rome, affords an actual example. A view of the interior of this edifice may be seen in Gaily Knight's " Eccle- siastical Architecture of Italy." BARBA'TULUS. Having a youthful beard growing just round the chin, without being shortened or trimmed into shape by the barber (Cic. Alt. i. 14.), as it was worn by the youth of Rome before the custom of shaving had obtained ; and, subse- quently, until the age of manhood, when its ample growth required to be artificially trimmed into form. The illustration is taken from a statue of Drusus, the son of Tiberius, found at Pompeii. BARBA'TUS (irwycavtas'). Wear- ing the beard of its natural length, as was frequently practised by the Greeks, until the age of Alexander, Having and universally by the Romans, until the year B. c. 300 (Plin. H. N. vii. 59. Compare Liv. v. 41. and Cic. Ccel 14.), whence the Latin writers com- monly use the word to describe the rude and unpolished manners of the early ages (Cic. Mur. 12. Id. Sext. 8.), when beards were worn like that in the example from an engraved gem, supposed to represent Numa Pompilius, from the resemblance it bears to the profile upon some coins which have the name of Numa in- scribed upon them. 2. Barbatus bene. beard neatly clip- ped and trimmed, so as to give it an artificial kind of beauty ; a practice which came into fashion amongst the young exquisites towards the latter days of the republic (Cic. Cat. ii. 10.), and was generally adopted by the emperors from the time of Hadrian, as in the annexed bust of Antoninus Pius, from an engraved gem. BAR'BITOS and BAR'BITON v, and Jul. Poll. iv. 59.). A stringed instrument belonging to the class of lyres ; but which was of a larger size and had thicker strings (Pol- lux, Z.c.), and, therefore, produced louder and fuller notes than the usual instruments of that kind. In other respects, it was played in the same manner as they were, with the fin- 80 BARCA. BASILICA. gers and the plectrum, or quill (Claud. Proem, ad Epith. in Nupt. Hon. et Mar. 9. Auson. Epigr. 44.) ; and thus it may be regarded as an in- strument which bore the same ana- logy to the lyre as our violoncello does to the violin. All these par- ticulars make it highly probable that the figure here introduced af- fords an authentic specimen of the ancient barbitos. It is copied from a Pompeian painting, where it stands by the side of Apollo, resting on a knob, like our bass viol, upon the ground, and reaching as high as half way up the figure. BAR/CA. A boat employed for discharging a cargo, and transport- ing it to the shore. When the vessel put to sea, it was shipped on board, and only lowered down again when its services were required. Isidor. Orig. xix. 1.19. Not. Tir. p. 77. BARDOCUCUL'LUS. A hood or cowl (cucullus), which, if we might judge from the name, was peculiar to the Bardaei, a people of Illyria (compare Capitol. Pertin. 8.) ; but Mart. (Ep. i. 54., compare Juv. Sat viii. 145.) attributes it to the Gauls, and in another passage {Ep. xiv. 128.) he clearly indicates that it was an outer garment worn by the common people of that country, and bearing some sort of resemblance to the Roman pcenula. Thus it was probably a cloak of coarse materials, with a hood to it, which covered the whole body, like the one worn by the carter in the annexed engraving, which is copied from a sepulchral bas-relief found at Langres, in France. It has sleeves, which the pcenula had not ; but there is a slit at the side (just near the right foot), the same as in the pcenula, only not so long ; and it is precisely these re- semblances and discrepancies which account for the juxtaposition of the two words in Martial. BA'RIS (frapis). Aflat-bottomed boat used upon the Nile, for the transport of merchandise, and more especially for conveying a dead body across the river to the place of se- pulture, in the funeral procession. (Herod, ii. 96. Diodor. i. 96.) The illustration shows one of these boats with a mummy placed in it, from an Egyptian painting. When Proper- tius (iii. 11. 44.) applies the name to the war vessels of Antony and Cleo- patra, it is to be understood in a sense of extreme irony and con- tempt. BASCAU'DA. The Welsh "basgawd," and English "basket." These articles of ancient British manufacture were imported, together with their name, into Rome (Mart. Ep. xiv. 99.), where they were em- ployed amongst the table utensils and held in much esteem. Juv. Sat. xii. 46. Schol. Vet. ad I BASIL'ICA. A spacious public building erected in, or contiguous to the forum or market place, for the merchants and people of business to meet in, as well as for a court of justice ; thus answering in many respects to our " Town Hall " and Exchange." Cic. Verr. ii. 5. 58. Id. Att. ii. 14. The internal construction of a basilica bore a very close resemblance BASILICA. BASTERNA. 81 to most of our old English churches. It consisted of a central nave and two side aisles, divided from it by a row of columns on each side, as shown on the annexed ground-plan of the Basilica at Pompeii. In this part of the building, the merchants and people of business congregated and transacted their affairs. At the further extremity of the principal nave, a portion was railed off (see the right hand of the preceding cut), like the chancel of a church, or a tribune was thrown out (see the next wood-cut), so as to form a recess apart from the noise and activity of the traffickers in the body of the building ; and in these the judges sat, and the council pleaded. The whole of the interior was further surrounded by an upper gallery raised upon the columns which divided the aisles below, as represented in the annexed engraving, which shows a longitudinal section and elevation down the centre of the ancient Basilica at Verona, as restored from its remains by the Count Arnaldi. These upper galle- ries were mainly intended for the accommodation of spectators and idle loungers ; who were thus enabled to watch the proceedings going on with- out creating confusion, or disturbing the real business below. Vitr. v. 1 . 2. After the introduction and establishment of Christianity by Constantine, many of the ancient basilica were converted by him into places for religious worship, for which purpose their plan of construction was so well adapted ; hence, amongst the ecclesiastical writers, after that period, the word is commonly used to designate a church (Sulp. Sev. Hist. Sacr. ii. 33. and 38. ). Five of these edifices at Rome still retain their ancient name of basilica ; and, moreover, preserve a record of their original purpose, by being kept open, like a court of justice, the whole day, instead of being shut at certain hours, like all the other churches. BASIL'ICUS, sc. jactus. The name given to one of the throws on the dice. What combination of numbers was required to turn up the throw is not ascertained ; but it was evidently a good cast, from the name, though below the Venus, which was the best of all. Plaut. Cure. ii. 3. 80. Becker, Gallus, p. 393. Transl. B ASTER' N A. A sort of palan- quin, more especially appropriated to the use of females. (Poet. Incert. m Anthol. Lat. Ep. iii. 183.) It was a close carriage (Ammian. xiv. 6. 16.) ; and was borne by two mules, one before and one behind, 82 EASTERN ARIUS. BES. each harnessed to a separate pair of shafts. (Pallad. vii. 2. 3.) The whole of this description corresponds so precisely with the annexed draw- ing, from an old wood-cut of the 15th century, and with similar con- veyances still in use in various countries, as to leave no doubt that the ancient basterna was formed upon a similar model. BASTERNA'RIUS. A slave who drove the mules, which carried a palanquin or basterna. Symm. Ep. vi. 15. BATIL'LUM or BATIL'LUS. A small shovel or fire pan, used as a chafing-dish, in which lighted charcoal was carried for the purpose of burning odoriferous herbs and frankincense. (Hor. Sat. i. 5. 36.) The example is from an original of bronze found at Pompeii. 2. A common shovel, or scoop for removing filth, rubbish, &c. ; some- times made of wood (Varro, R. E. i. 50. 2.), and sometimes of iron. Varro, R. R. iii. 6. 5. 3. A small and flattish pan, or dish, with a handle to it, employed as a crucible for assaying silver. (Plin. H. N. xxxiii. 44.) The example is copied from a bas-relief found on the Via Appia, the use of which is clearly identified in the original, by the representation of a bag of money beside it. BATI'OLA. A sort of drinking cup of large dimensions and valuable materials ; but of which the precise form and capacity are not known. Plaut. Stick, v. 4. 12. BAX'A and BAX'EA. A light sort of slipper, or sandal, or shoe, made of fibres, leaves, or willow strips platted together by the Ro- mans (Isidor. Orig. xix. 34. 6. and 13.), and of the palm leaf, or the papyrus, by the Egyptians. (Apul. Met. ii. 39.) They were worn on the Comic stage (Plaut. Men. ii. 3. 40.), and by philosophers who af- fected simplicity of dress. (Apul. Met. xi. p. 244.) The example is from an original of papyrus in the Berlin collection. They are some- times indicated on the feet of Egyp- tian statues, and many originals have been discovered in the Egyptian tombs ; some made with close sides and upper leather, like a shoe; others with a leaf forming a mere strap, like a clog, across the instep ; and others, like the specimen here engraved, with a band across the instep, and another smaller leaf in the fore part of the sole, intended to pass the great toe through. BEN'NA. A Gaulish word, used to designate a four-wheeled cart or carriage made of wicker-work, and capable of holding several persons, as seen in the example copied from the Column of Antoninus. Festus, *. v. Scheffer, Re Vehic. ii. 21. Compare Cato, R.R. 23. 2. where, however, Schneider reads Mcena. BES. Eight-twelfths, or two- thirds of anything ; as, for instance, one of the fractional parts of the As ; but not used in actual coinage as a piece of money. Varro, L.L. v. 172. BESTIARIUS. BICLIN1UM. 83 BESTIA'RIUS (diptotidxiit). One who was trained and hired to fight with wild beasts at the Circensian games, in the Roman amphitheatre, or upon any particular occasion when shows of this nature were exhibited to the people. (Cic. Sext. 64. Id. Q. Fr. ii. 6.) The Bestiarii were distinct from the gladiators, and altogether regarded as an inferior class of combatants (Pet. Sat. 45. 11.) ; nevertheless, they were at first fully protected, like them, with defensive and offensive armour ; viz. a helmet, shield, knife or sword, and defences for the legs ; most of which particulars are shown in the illus- tration, forming part of a bas-relief let into the wall of the Palazzo Savelli, now Orsini, at Rome, and which is built upon the ruins of the theatre of Marcellus; at the dedi- cation of which 600 wild beasts were killed, a slaughter commemorated, no doubt, by the bas-relief here in- troduced. But latterly they became more distinct in their accoutrements and mode of fighting, having no body armour beyond legs and arms ; and for offensive weapons, carrying only a spear or a sword in one hand, and a piece of coloured cloth, like the Spanish matador, in the other ; as shown by the annexed example, from a tomb at Pompeii. This custom was first introduced in the reign of Claudius. Plin. H.N. viii. 21. BIBLIOPO'LA (j8tgAioirc$Ar/s). A bookseller; whose trade consisted in collecting MSS. (Mart. Ep. iv. 72.); advertising them by catalogues affixed to the outside of his shop (Mart. Ep. i. 118. 11. Hor. Sat. i. 4.71. Id. A. P. 373.); multiplying copies by the employment of various hands to transcribe them (Mart. Ep. ii. 8. Compare Ep. vii. 11.); and disposing of the same by sale. (Plin. i Ep. ix. 11.) BIBLIOTHE'CA (frgAto0VO. I A library ; i. e. the apartment or I building in which a collection of books is preserved. (Cic. Fam. vii. 28.) A room fitted up as a library was discovered in one of the houses at Herculaneum, in the year 1753, which contained 1756 MSS. exclu- sive of many destroyed by the work- men before their value was known. They were arranged in shelves, or presses, round the room, to the height of nearly six feet ; and in its centre, there was also an isolated case, formed by a rectangular column, which fronted each way, and was filled in the same manner as the other shelves. lorio, Officina de' Papiri. 2. A library ; i. e. the collection of books contained in a library. Cic. Fam. xiii. 77. Festus, *. v. 3. A book-case, or set of book shelves. Paul. Dig. 30. 1. 41. Ulp. Dig. 32. 3. 52. § 8. BIBLIOTHE'CULA. A small library. Symm. Ep. iv. 18. BICLIN'IUM. A sofa, or couch, adapted for two persons to recline on at their meals, &c. (Plaut. Bacch. iv. 3. 84. and 117.) It is a hybrid word, half Latin and half Greek, M 2 84 BIDENS. BIFRONS. (Quint, i. 5. 68.) The example is lustration affords a view of the re- from a Roman bas-relief. BIDENS (5f/ceAAo, ffiuvbf). A strong and heavy two-pronged hoe (Ov. Fast. iv. 927), employed in vari- ous agricultural purposes ; such as, for hoeing up the soil instead of plough- ing ; for breaking the clods of earth turned up by the plough ; for loosen- ing and clearing the earth about the roots of the vine, &c. (Virg. G. ii. 355. 400. Tibull. ii. 3. 6. Columell. iv. 17. 8.) The example is from an engraved gem, which represents Saturn in the character of an agri- cultural slave, in allusion to the Saturnalian festival. 2. As an adjective, it is descriptive of things which are formed with two prongs, blades, or teeth ; as forfex or ferrum bidens (Virg. Cat. 8. Id. Cir. 213.), a pair of shears (cut of FOR- FEX) ; bidens ancora (Plin. vii. 57.), an anchor with a double fluke, for in early times they were only made with a single one. Cut of ANCORA. BIDEN'TAL. A small temple or shrine, consecrated by the augurs, and enclosing an altar erected upon any spot which had been struck with lightning (puteal) ; so called because it was customary to sacrifice a sheep of two years' old (bidens) at such places. (Festus s.v. Hor. A. P. 471. Apul. Deo Socr. p. 677.) The il- mains of a bidental at Pompeii. The altar is seen in the centre, and parts of the columns which enclosed it are standing in their places; the roof and superstructure may be easily imagined. BIF'ORIS and BIF'ORUS (8i'0u- pos). Bivalve ; applied to windows and doors, to indicate those which open in two leaves, instead of all in one piece, similar to what we call French windows and folding-doors. (Ovid. Pont. iii. 3. 5. Vitruv. iv. 6. 6.) See the illustration to ANTE- PAGMENTUM. BIF'RONS (Si/ieVonroy). Having two fronts or faces looking both ways; a type attri- buted to Janus, as il- lustrative of his great sagacity, and emblem- atic of his knowledge of the past and future, — the known, which, as it were, lies okfore, and the unknown, which is behind. (Virg. Mn.' vii. 180.) Busts of this kind, with the likenesses of different persons turned back to back, were much used by the ancients to ornament their libraries and pic- ture galleries; they were frequently placed on the top of a square pillar at 1 the meeting of cross-roads ; and very generally as a termination for the top of a post forming the upright to a garden railing, or other ornamental enclosure; for which purposes an object presenting a front or complete view all round is especially adapted. The illustration is from the Capitol at Rome ; it presents two female busts, of the same likeness, a rare coincidence ; for busts of this kind BIGA. BILYCHNIS. 85 mostly represent male heads of dif- ferent persons, very generally philo- sophers, or of the Indian Bacchus, united with some mythological or other personage. BI'GA (ffvwpis). A pair ot horses yoked together; which was effected by a cross-bar resting on their withers, like our curricle-bar, as is very plainly shown by the illus- tration, from a Pompeian painting. In this sense the plural, bigce, is generally and most appropriately used. Plin. H.N. vii. 57. Virg. ^En. ii. 272. Catull. Iv. 26. 2. In the singular, more accu- rately, though the plural is also used, a car drawn by a pair of horses ; a two-horsed carriage (Suet. Tib. 26. Tac. Hist. i. 86.), and equally ap- plied to a war-car, or racing chariot, which latter is represented by the engraving, from a fictile lamp. BIGA'TUS, sc. nummus, or argen- tum bigatum. (Liv. xxxiii. 23.) A silver denarius ; one of the earliest Roman coins (Liv. xxiii. 15. Tac. Germ. 5.), which bore the device of a biga, or two-horse car, on the re- The verse (Plin. H. N. xxxiii. 13.), from which it received its name. The ex- ample is from an original in the Bri- tish Museum, and drawn of the actual size. BIJ'UGIS and BIJ'UGUS. same as BIGA, in both senses. B FLA NX. With two scales. Marc. Capell. ii. 180. p. 42. See LIBRA. B I' L I X (SfctTos). Literally, made with two threads, or by a double set of leashes (licia), in refer- ence to cloth woven like our " twill " or "dimity" (Virg. ^En. xii. 375.), the peculiarity of which depends upon the manner in which the threads of the warp and woof are interlaced. In a piece of common " calico," the threads cross each other at right angles, every thread of the woof (subtemen) passing alternately over and under one of the threads of the warp (stamen), for which a single set of leashes is sufficient ; but in twilled fabrics a thread of the woof is passed over one, and then under two or more threads of the warp, which gives a ribbed appearance in the pattern. Thus, when the twill is formed by passing over one thread and under two, it requires two sets of leashes, and was distinguished by the epithet bilix ; when over one, and under three, trilix; and so on. BILYCH'NIS, sc. luc.erna. A lamp furnished with two nozzles and wicks, so as to give out two sepa- rate flames (Pet. Sat. 30. 2.), as in 86 BIPALIUM. lilREMIS. the example, from an original of bronze. BIPA'LIUM. A particular kind of spade, fitted with a cross-bar at a certain height above the blade, upon which the labourer pressed his foot in digging, and thus drove the blade two spits deep, or twice the depth of the common spade (pa/a). The usual reach of this instrument was two feet, but that could be increased or diminished, by placing the cross- bar either further from, or nearer to, the blade. (Cato, R.R. 45. 2. Varro, R.R. i. 37. 5. Columell. xi. 3. 11.) The example is from a sepulchral bas-relief. BIFEDA. A large tile, two feet long, used for making pavements in the open air. Pallad. i. 40. 2. Id. i. 19. 1. BIPEN'NIFER. Bearing, or armed with, the double-bladed axe (bipennis\ a weapon especially cha- racteristic of the Amazons, as seen in the illustration, from a Greek bas-relief, but also attributed to other persons, as to the Thracian king, Lycur- gus (Ov. Met. iv. 22-), and to Areas, the son of Jupiter and Callisto. Ov. Met. viii. 391. BIPEN'NIS (5/(pro- juos irfXeicvs, a^ivi)). An axe with a double edge or blade (Isidor. Orig. xix. 19. 1 1.) ; used as a chip axe (Hor. Od. iv. 4. 57.), and more com- monly as a weapon of war. ^Virg. &n. v. 307. Plin. H.N. viii. 8.) See the illustration and preceding word. BIPRO'RUS (StVpwpos). Having a double prow (Hygin. Fab. 168. 277.) ; which probably means a vessel built sharp fore and aft, like the fast-sailing "proas" of the In- dian seas, so that it could sail either way without tacking or going about. Compare Tac. Ann. ii. 6. BIRE'MIS (SiWroy). Literally, furnished with a pair of oars or sculls ; and thence used, both adjec- tively with scapha, and absolutely, for a small boat rowed by one man, who handles a pair of sculls, as in the engraving, from an ancient fresco painting. Hor. Od. iii. 29. 62. Lucan. viii. 562. Compare 565. and 611., where the same is designated parva ratis, and alnus. 2. (Si/c/JOTos). Furnished with two banks of oars (prdines) ; which is the more common application, and de- signates a bireme or vessel of war, which has two lines of oars on each side, placed in a diagonal position one above the other, as in the ex- ample, from a marble bas-relief of the Villa Albani, each oar being worked by a single rower. (Plin. H.N. vii. 57. Cses. B.C. iii. 40. Tac. Hist. v. 23.) That such was the arrangement adopted in the construc- tion of a bireme, is sufficiently evident from the figure in the cut; by the sculptures on Trajan's Column (23, B1ROTUS. BOLJE. 87 24. 59. 61. ed. Bartoli), where a similar disposition is indicated ; and by the passage of Tacitus (/. c,\ which distinguishes a vessel which has its oars placed in a single file (moneris) from the bireme, which, therefore, had them distributed in two — compkt quod biremium, quceque simplici ordine agebantur. BIRO'TUS, and BIRO'TA sub- stantively. Having two wheels, and thus designating any description of carriage so constructed ; all of which are enumerated in the Ana- lytical Index. Non. Marc. s. v. Cisium, p. 86. Cod. Theodos. 8. 5. 8. BIR'RUS. A capote, or cape, with a hood to it (Schol. Vet. ad 128.) ; though there is every reason to believe that it was only used by Juv. Sat. viii. 145.), which was in very common use amongst all classes under the later emperors, as an out- door covering for the head and shoul- ders. It had a long nap, like beaver (Claud. Epigr. 42.), and from the thickness of its texture is designated as stiff (rigens, Sulp. Sev. Dial 14.), both of which qualities are clearly recognizable in the illustration, from a statue found at Pompeii, which re- presents a young fisherman asleep in his capote. BIS AC'CIUM. A pair of saddle- bags made of coarse sacking ; the original of the Italian bisacce, and Sicrdiciov of the modern Greeks. Pet. Sat. 31. 9. Anton, ad I. BISELLA'RIUS. A person to whom the privilege was accorded of using a bisellium. Inscript. op. Grut. 1099. 2. BISEL'LIUM. A state chair of large dimensions, sufficient for hold- ing two persons (Varro, L.L. v. one ; as the several specimens found or represented at Pompeii are usually accompanied by a single foot-stool (suppedaneum) placed in the centre, similar to the example here given, which is from a Pompeian bas-relief, and has its name, bisellium, inscribed above it. These chairs were used by persons of distinction, especially the Augustals, in the provinces, at the theatre and other public places, in the same manner as the sella curulis was at Rome. Inscript. ap. Mazois. Ruines de Pomp. vol. i. p. 24. ap. Fabretti, c. 3. n. 324. ap. Grut. 475. 3. BIV'IUM. A road, or street, which branches into two forks (Plin. H. N. vi. 32.); hence, in bivio (Virg. JEn. ix. 238. ), at the point of diver- gence between two such roads or streets, and which in the town of Pompeii is always furnished with a fountain, as in the example, which presents a street view in that city. BOI'^E. Probably identical with the Greek K\oiot, which was a large wooden collar, put round the neck of mischievous dogs (Xen. Hell ii. 4. 41.); whence the Romans applied the word, in a similar sense, to a collar of wood or iron put round the neck of slaves and criminals. Plaut. 88 BOLETAR. BRAC^E. As. m. 2. 5. Id. Capt. iv. 2. 109. Prudent. Prcsf. Psych. 34. Hieron. 5. in Hierem. 27. BOLE' TAR. Properly a dish for serving mushrooms (boleti) upon (Mart. Ep. xiv. 101.); and thence transferred to any kind of dish. A pic. ii. 1. v. 2. viii. 7. BOTEL/LUS. Diminutive of botulus. Mart. v. 78. BOTULA'RIUS. A maker and vendor of botuli, black puddings, or sausage meat. Sen. Ep. 56. BOT'ULUS OWT/CTJ). A sort of sausage meat or black pudding, for it was prepared with the blood of the animal (Tertull. Apol. 9.), which appears to have been prized more especially by the common people, and such gentry as Trimalchio of Petronius. Mart. xiv. 72. Gell. xvi. 7. 3. Petr. Sat. xlix. 10. BOVI'LE. (Veget. iv. 1. 3.) The same as BUBILE, which is the more usual form. BRABE'UM, BRABI'UM, or BRAVI'UM (j8pagerOJ/). The prize given to the victor at the public games. (Prudent. Ile/u 2re</). v. 538. ) The exclamation bravo ! as a sign of approval, refers its origin to this word. BRABEU'TA (fyaeeurfc). The judge who declared the victors, and awarded the prizes at the public games of Greece. Suet. Nero, 53. BRAC'^E or BRAC'C^E (a»/a- fvp/5es). An article of dress which entirely covered the lower part of the person from the waist (see cut 2.) to the ankles, and was either made to fit the figure nearly tight, like our pantaloons, or to sit more loosely round the legs, like trowsers. The word contains the elements of the Scotch breefis, and English breeches; but answers more closely to the pantaloons and trowsers of the present day. The Romans included both kinds under the general term of braces ; but the Greeks distinguished each particular form by a character- istic name ; as follows : — 1. &va£vpi8€s. A pair of tight trowsers or pantaloons, more espe- cially proper to the Eastern nations, and amongst these the Amazons and Persians (Ovid. Trist. v. 10. 34. Herod, i. 71.), as shown by the en- graving annexed, which represents a Persian prince at the battle of Issus, from the great mosaic at Pompeii. 2. Bracce laxce (duAewcoi). A pair of loose trowsers, worn in the same manner as the preceding, but more generally characteristic of the north- ern nations (Ovid. Trist. v. 7. 49. Lucan. i. 430.), as seen in the an- nexed figure, representing one of the German auxiliaries in the army of Trajan ; and of the Phrygians, amongst the Asiatics (Eur. Cycl. 182) ; consequently the usual costume of Paris. 3. Braces virgata (Proper! iv. 10. 43.), orpictce. (Val. Place, vi. 227.) Striped, checked, and embroidered trowsers, which were much worn by the inhabitants of Asia. See the next illustration. BRACARIUS. BRACHIALE. 89 BRACA'RIUS. Strictly a trowser- maker (Lamprid. Alex. Sev. 24.) ; but in the Edict of Diocletian (p. 20.), a tailor in general, who made any kind of vest. BRACA'TUS or BRACCA'TUS. In general, a person who wears trow- sers or pantaloons ; more especially intended to characterise the Asiatic or northern races (Cic. Fam. ix. 15. Pers. Sat. iii. 53.), as distinguished from the Greeks, by whom they were never worn ; and from the Romans, by whom they were only adopted at a late period of the Empire, or by per- sons who affected a foreign style. Tac. Hist. ii. 20. 2. Bracatus totum corpus, breeched from head to foot. An expression intended to describe a peculiar sort of costume commonly worn by the races who inhabited the shores of the Palus Mseotis (Mela, ii. 1.), and often seen on the figures of Amazons on the Greek fictile vases, from one of which the illustration here intro- duced is taken. It was a dress which formed a pair of pantaloons below, and a sort of waistcoat or jacket above ; but was made all in one length, as the phrase indicates, and as is clearly shown by a figure in Winkelman (Mon. Ined. No. 149.), which leaves exposed the portion here concealed by the kilt. 3. Bracatus miles. A trowsered soldier; which means, when the phrase is used with reference to the republican or early Imperial period, a foreign soldier or auxiliary (Pro- pert. iii. 4. 17.) from any of the nations who wore long trowsers as their national costume (see the cut of BraccB 2. and many other examples on the Column of Trajan) ; but from the days of Alexander Severus, and subsequently, these articles of apparel were also adopted by the Roman soldiers (Lamprid. Alex. Sev. 40.), and may be seen on those figures of the arch of Constantine, which were executed at the period when the arch was built, and not taken from the works of Trajan, one of which is here introduced ; consequently, in any writings of this period the phrase is equally characteristic of the Ro- mans themselves. 4. Bracata Gallia. A department of Gaul, so called from the long breeches or trowsers worn .by its inhabitants. It was subsequently termed Gallia Narbonensis. Mela, ii. 59. Plin. H. N. iii. 5. BRACHIA'LE (irepiSpax^iov-). A piece of defensive armour which covered the brachium, or part of the arm be- tween the wrist and elbow. It is distinctly mentioned by Xenophon (Cyrop. vi. 4. 2.) as part of the accoutre- ments worn by the Per- sians, and is sometimes seen on figures of Ro- man gladiators, though the Latin name does not occur in this sense, except, perhaps, Trebell. Claud. 14., N 90 BREPHOTROPH EUM. BUCCULA. where, however, it may mean a bracelet. The example here intro- duced is from an original of bronze, which was found, with other pieces of armour, at Pompeii, and probably belonged to a gladiator. The rings by which it was fastened on the front of the arm are seen at the side. BREPHOTROPHE'UM and BREPHOTROPHl'UM (fyetj>o- rpocpfiov). A foundling-hospital ; both words, however, the Latin as well as Greek, are of a late date, not occurring before the age of the Christian empe- rors, when foundlings were declared to be free, and those who received or educated them were forbidden by law to detain, or sell them as slaves (Imp. Justin. Cod. i. 2. 19.); for while the exposure, sale, or giving in pawn of children was commonly permitted and practised, it is not likely that any establishment of this kind would be maintained at the public expense. BUBI'LE (&6av\os or -<w). A cow-shed, cow-house, or stall for oxen. CPhsedr. ii. 8. Cato, J?.T?. 4. Colu- mell. i. 6. 4.) The illustration, which might almost have been sketched from a modern farm-yard, is copied from a miniature of the Vatican Virgil. BUB'SEQUA. A cow-boy, who drives the cattle to and from their pastures, &c. (Apul. Met. viii. p. 152. Sidon. Ep. i. 6.) The ex- ample is from the Vatican Virgil. BUBUL'CUS OwcrfAos). In a general sense, a cow-herd, neat-herd, or herdsman (Virg. Eel. x. 9.), who tends, manages, and has the general care of the cattle on a farm ; in which sense the term pastor is more common. The illustration is from an engraved gem. 2. More especially and frequently, a countryman who drives a team of oxen at the plough (Columell. ii. 5. 2. ii. 13. 1. ii. 2. 25.), as shown in the illustration s. ARATOR; or in a waggon of any kind. Ovid, Trist. iii. 12. 30. BUCCELLA'TUM. A hard sol- dier's biscuit, which was distributed for rations upon a march. Spart. Pescenn. Nig. 10. Ammian. xvii. 8. 2. B U C' C U L A (Trapayvaeis). The cheek-piece of a helmet, which was furnished with one on each of its sides, attached by hinges, so as to be lifted up and down at pleasure. In active exercise the bucculce were fastened under the chin ; when the wearer was " at ease," they were frequently tied up over the top of the skull cap. (See the illustrations s. GALEA. Liv. xliv. 34. Juv. x. 134.) The engraving shows one side of an original bronze helmet found in a tomb at Psestum, BUCCULARIUS. BULLA. 91 with the cheek piece depending from it. BTJCCULA'RIUS. One who made, or affixed cheek-pieces (buc- culce) to helmets. Aurel. Arcad. Dig. 50. 6. 6. BU'CINA and BUC'CINA (jSy/cavr;), A particular kind of horn, formed in spiral twists (Ovid, Met i. ,336.), like the shell of the fish out of which it was originally made, as shown by the annexed engraving, from a small bronze figure once be- longing to Blanchini. In this, its earliest form, it was commonly used by swine and neat-herds to collect their droves from the woods (Varro, ^.7?. ii. 4. 20. Id. iii. 13. 1. Prop, iv. 10. 29.) ; by the night watch, and the Accensi, to give notice of the hours by night or day (Prop. iv. 4. 6. Seneca, Thyest. 798.) ; and in early times, to summon the Quirites to the assembly, or collect them upon any emergency. Prop. iv. i. 13. 2. The bucina was also employed as one of the three wind instruments with which signals were made, or the word of command given to the soldiery (Polyb. xv. *12. 2. Virg. ^En. xi. 475. Veget. Mil. iii. 5.); but the military instrument was then of a diiferent form, having a larger mouth made of metal, and bent round underneath (quce in semetipsam cereo circulojtectitur, Veget. I c.), of which kind a specimen is here given, from a' marble bas-relief, published by Burney, Hist, of Music, vol. i. pi. 6. BUCINA'TOR or BUCCINA'- TOR (&vKavr)T-ris, or /Su/ccu/to-r^s). One who blows the horn, called bucina (Polyb. ii. 29. 6. Id. xxx. 13. 11. Cffis. B. C. ii. 35.), which in addition to the uses mentioned in the last article, was also employed for making signals on board ship, as in the example, from a terra-cotta lamp, which represents a ship coming into port ; the sailors are furling the sails, while the master signalizes its arrival by sounding the bucina. BUL'GA. A small leathern bag, which was carried on the arm (Non. s. v. p. 78. ed. Mer-' cer), in the same manner as the mo- dern reticule, by travellers, who used it as a money bag (Lucil. Sat. vi. p. 20. 1. ed. Gerlach. Varro ap. Non. I.e.} ; and by agriculturists, as a pouch, con- taining the seed at sowing time (the TT-flpa a-jr€pfj.o<f)6pos of the Greek An- thology), to which use the example here given was applied; it is borne by a figure furnished with various implements of husbandry on a beauti- ful silver tazza of the Neapolitan Museum. Mus. Borb. xii. 47. BUI/ LA. Literally a water bubble; whence the word is applied to various ornaments of a globular form, or which possess some affinity in shape to a bubble ; viz. — N 2 92 BULLA. BURA. 1. The head of a nail ; made of rich and elaborate designs in bronze, or sometimes gold (Cic. Verr. v. 57.), and used for orna- menting the external panels of a door. The example is from an original of bronze, and represents one of the nail heads which decorate the ancient bronze doors of the Pan- theon at Rome. 2. A boss or stud of the precious metals or other valuable material, affixed as an orna- ment to other objects ; as, for instance, to a girdle, shoulder belt, sword sheath, &c. (Virg. JSn. ix. 359.) The example is from an original in ivory found in the catacombs at Rome. 3. Sulla aurea. A golden orna- ment, worn by the Roman children of noble families. (Plin. H. N. xxxiii. 4.) It consisted of two con- cave plates of gold fastened together by an elastic brace of the same material, so as to form a complete globe, within which an amulet was contained. (Macrob. Sat i. 6.) The illustration represents an original which was found at Roma Vecchia (Ficoroni, Bolla d' Oro, p. 8.), and is drawn of one-third the actual size. 4. Sulla scortea. An ornament of a similar description, only made of leather, instead of gold, which was worn attached to a thong of the same material (lorum, Juv. v. 165.), by the children of freedmen and of the (f lower classes. (Ascon. in Cic. Verr. v. 58.) The example is from a small bronze statue found at Perugia, in which the details of the band by which it was fastened round the neck clearly indicate that it was made of a leather plat. BULLA'TUS. Wearing the bulla ; which was suspended by a fastening round the neck, so as to hang in front of the breast. It was so worn by Roman children, until they attained the age of puberty, when it was laid aside, toge- ther with the prce- texta, and dedicated to the tutelary dei- ties of their house. (Scipio Afr. ap. Ma- crob. Sat. ii. 10. Pers. Sat. v. 31.) The il- lustration is from a bas-relief in terra- cotta, and represents a youth with his tablet at school. B U L' L U L A. Diminutive of BULLA. An ornament, worn by females round their necks, of similar character to the last, but of smaller dimensions, and made of gold, silver, bronze, or of precious stones. In- script. ap. Ficoroni, Bolla d'Oro, p. 26. Hieron. in IsaL ii. 3. 18. BU'RA or BU'RIS (ybis'). The plough tail (Varro, R. R. i. 19. 2.) ; i. e. the hinder part of an ancient plough formed out of the branch of a tree, or a single piece of timber, bent at one end into a curve (Virg. Ge.org. i. 169.), like an ox's tail (0obs BUSTUARIUS. BUXUM. 93 from which resemblance the Latin name originated. (Serv. ad Virg. I.e. Isidor. Orig. xx. 14. 2.) The illustration represents an ancient plough, from an engraved gem; the bent part on the left hand is the bum ; the short hook under it, shod with iron, acted as the share (yomer} ; the upright stock, formed by a natural branch growing out in an opposite direction, the handle (stiva\ by which the ploughman guided his machine ; and the straight end, pro- ceeding horizontally from the curve, a pole (fewio), to which the oxen were attached. Compare also ARATRUM, 2., where the same part is shown upon a Greek plough of improved construction at the letters A A. BUSTUA'RIUS. A gladiator who engaged in mortal combat round the funeral pyre at the burning of a body ; a custom which originated in the notion that the manes were ap- peased with blood, and the conse- quent practice of killing prisoners taken in war over the graves of those who were slain in battle. (Serv. ad Virg. &n. x. 519. Cic. Pis. 9. Com- pare Horn. //. xxi. 26. Florus, iii. 20. 9.) The illustration is from an engraved gem ; the character of the figure is indicated by the sepulchral pyramid in the back ground. BUS'TUM (rvp.Gos). A vacant space of ground, on which a funeral pile was raised, and the corpse burnt ; but expressly so termed when this area was contained within the sepul- chral enclosure, and contiguous to the tomb in which the ashes were afterwards deposited. It is, therefore, to be considered in the light of a private or family burning ground, in contradistinction to the Ustrinum, or public one. Festus, s. v. Lucret. iii. 919. Cic. Leg. ii. 26. Suet. Nero, 38. BU'TYRUM (pobrvpov). Butter; an article which does not appear to have been either of Greek or Roman invention, but to have come to the former people from the Scythians, Thracians, and Phrygians, and to the latter from the nations of Ger- many. After they had become ac- quainted with the manner of making it, it was only used as a medicine, or as an ointment in the baths, but not as an article of food, nor in cookery ; and it would moreover appear that they were unable to make it of the same firmness and consistency as we do, or to work it beyond an oily or almost liquid state, for in all the passages in which the word occurs it is spoken of as something fluid and to be poured out. Columell. vi. 12. 5. Plin. H. N. xi. 96. Id. xxviii. 35. Beckman, History of Inventions, vol.i. p. 504 — 7. London, 1846. BUXUM (TTU'IOS). Box-wood; an article much employed by the an- cients, as it is with us, on account of its consistency and fitness for work- ing ; whence the word is commonly used to signify any of the various articles made of such wood ; for example : — 1. A boy's whipping-top. Virg. ;En. vii. 382. Pers. Sat. iii. 51. 2. A box- wood flute or pipe. (Ovid. Met. xiv. 537. Prop. iv. 8. 42. ) A pair of box- wood pipes from Greece are preserved in the British Museum. See TIBIA. 3. A box-wood comb. (Ov. Fast vi. 229. Juv. xiv. 194.) See PECTEN. 4. A box-wood tablet, covered 94 CACABULUS. CADUS. with wax, for writing on. (Prop, iii. 23. 8. ) See CERA, TABELLA. c. CACAB'ULUS or CACAB'- TJLTJM (/ca/c/cctgiop). Diminutive of CACABUS. Apic. iv. 1. CA'CABUS or CAC'CABUS (Ko/c/cag??, KaKKa€(s, Ka/CKa§os). A pot for boiling meat, vegetables, fyc. (Varro, L.L. v. 127.), which was placed immedi- ately upon the fire, or on a trivet (tripus~) stand- ing over it. (Compare AHENUM.) The com- mon sorts were made of earthenware ; whence, when other kinds are re- commended, the material is always specified by a characteristic epithet, as a tin pot (stagneus, Columell. xii. 42. 1.) ; a bronze pot (ceneus, Id. xii. 48. 1.) ; a silver pot (argenteus, Ulp. Dig. 34. 2. 20.) The example re- presents a bronze original, from Pom- peii ; a specimen in use, and upon a trivet, is given under TRIPUS 1. CADUCEA'TOR. A general name for any person who was sent out from one belligerent party to another, carrying the wand of peace (caduceus} ; or, as we should express it, the bearer of a flag of truce. The persons of those employed upon such missions were at all times held sacred and inviolable. Liv. xxxii. 32. Cato, ap. Fest. s. v. See also CERYX and FETIALIS. CADU'CEUS or CADU'CEUM (KTipvKeiov , KrjpvKiov*). In general, a herald's wand (Cic. de Orat. i. 46.), which consisted of a simple olive stick, ornamented with garlands (Miiller, Archao- logie der JKunst, p. 504. and the illustration to CERYX 2.) ; but the word is more specially applied to the wand assigned by ancient artists and poets to Mercury (caduceus Mercurialis, Apul. Met. xi. p. 245.), in his ca- pacity of herald or messenger of the gods. In this, the place of the gar- lands is occupied by snakes ; in allusion to the fable which states that Mercury, observing two snakes fighting with one another, separated them with his staff ; whence a stick thus decorated came to be adopted as the emblem of peace. (Hygin. Astron. ii. 7. Macrob. Sat. i. 19.) Both these characteristics, the olive stick and the snakes for garlands, are clearly represented in the ex- ample, which is copied from a se- pulchral urn. Sometimes a pair of wings are added on the top, as in the next illustration. CADU'CIFER. In general, one who carries the caduceus, but more especially used as a characteristic epithet of Mercury, by which it is implied that he is the messenger of heaven. (Ov. Met. viii. 627. Id. Fast. v. 449.) The illustration is from a Roman marble. CADUS (/caSos). A large earthen- ware jar, used chiefly for holding wine (Mart. iv. 66. 8. Virg. JEn. i. 195. Id. Cop. 11.); but also employed for other purposes — to contain oil, honey, dried fruits, salted fish, meats, &c. (Mart. i. 44. 9. Id. i. 56. 10. Plin. H.N. xv. 21. Id. xviii. 73.) It had a narrowish neck and mouth, which could be closed with a stopper or cork bung (Plin. H.N. xvi. 13.), and a body which was pointed at bottom, and C^ELUM. (LESTUS. 95 possessing the general shape of a boy's whipping-top (turbines cado~ rum, Plin. H. N. xxvii. 5.); all which characteristic properties are observable in the illustration, from an original discovered amongst various other sorts of vessels in an ancient wine cellar, of which the plan and elevation is introduced under CELL A 2. CJELUM (y\v(f>avov). The chisel or graver used by persons who prac- tise the art of chasing (ccelaturd) in metals. Isidor. Orig. xx. 4. 7. Quint, ii. 21. 24. 2. See COELUM. C^EMENTA'RIUS. One who builds rough walls of unhewn stones (ccementa). Hieron. Ep. 53. 6. CJEMENTFCIUS. Built of un- hewn stones. The ancients adopted two ways of building with rough quarry stones ; one, in which very large irregular masses were laid to- gether without mortar, but having the interstices filled in with the smaller chippings, as shown in the illustration above, which represents a portion of the very ancient walls of Tiryns ; this kind they termed cce- menticia structura antiqua. (Vitruv. ii. 8. Liv. xxi. 11.) The other, very generally practised by the Romans, consisted of small irregular pieces, imbedded in mortar, so as to take any architectural form, as shown by the annexed illustration, which re- presents a portion of the Villa of Maecenas at Tivoli, the ancient Tibur. This was called ccementicia structura incerta (Vitruv. ii. 8.), and was mostly intended to be covered over by a coating of cement. CjEMEN'TUM. Rough quarry stones, which were used for building walls in the manner described, and illustrated under the preceding word ; including the large irregular masses employed for the walls of a citadel or fortified town (Liv. xxi. 11. Vitruv. i. 5. 8. and last cut but one), as well as the smaller fragments or chip- pings (AaryTrrj, ffKvpos), more gene- rally adopted in domestic architec- ture. Cic. Mil 27. Vitruv. ii. 7. 1. Id. vi. 6. 1. and last illustration. CJENA.. See CCENA. C^ESAR'IES. Is nearly synony- mous with COMA ; but implies also a sense of beauty ; i. e. as we should say, a becoming head of hair ; pro- fuse and abundant when applied to women (Ovid, Am. iii. 1. 32.) ; thick, long, and waving, like the Greek busts of Jupiter, Bacchus, and Apollo, when applied to men (Plaut. Mil i. 1. 64. Liv. xxviii. 35. Virg. JEn. i. 590.) ; whence the same word is also used to designate a grand and majestic beard. Ov. Met. xv. 656. C^ESTRUM. See CESTRUM. C^STUS(i>a/»/Tey,juu>7?|). Box- ing gauntlets worn by the ancient prize fighters (Cic. Tusc. ii. 17. Virg. JEn. v. 379.) ; which consisted of leather thongs bound round the hands and wrists (Prop. iii. 14. 9.), 96 C^ETRA. CALANTICA. and sometimes reached as high up as the elbow (illustration s. PUGIL), and armed with lead or metal bosses, as in the examples, from an ancient statue. C^TRA. See CETRA. CALAMA'RIUS. Theca cola- mar ia (/caAajius). A pen- holder, or case for carrying writing reeds. (Suet. Claud. 35. Mart. Tit. in Ep. xiv. 19.) It is probable that these cases also contained an ink-bottle, like those now used by our school-boys ; •whence the same word calamajo, in the common language of Italy, means an " ink-stand." CALAMIS'TER, CALAMIS'- TRUS, CALAMIS'TRUM («aAa- /*fs). A pair of curling-irons; so termed because the outside was hollow like a reed (calamus), though, like our own, they were made of iron, and heated in the fire, to produce artificial curls in the hair. (Varro, L. L. v. 129. Cic. Post Eed. i. 7. Pet. Sat. 102. 15.) The illustration is copied from a sepulchral bas- relief in the Florentine Gallery, on which it appears amongst various other articles of the toilet ; the curl- ing part alone is indicated on the marble, as here represented, but that is sufficient to show that the instrument was similar in character to the one still employed for the same purpose. CALAMISTRA'TUS. Having the hair artificially curled with the irons (calamister) ; a practice very prevalent at Rome, both amongst men and women, in the time of Plautus, Varro, and Cicero. Plaut. As. in. 3. 37. Cic. Post Red. i. 6. CAL'AMUS (/caAa^os). Literally the haulm or stalk of any tall plant, but more especially of the reed or cane ,- whence it is applied in the same way as the word ARUNDO, and to de- signate a similar class of objects ; as 1. An arrow. Hor. Od. i. 15. 17. ARUNDO 2. 2. Pan's pipes. Virg. Eel ii. 33. ARUNDO 6. 3. A fishing-rod. Mart, accord- ing to Riddle, s. v~ ARUNDO 3. 4. A fowler's lime-tipped rod. Mart. Ep. xiv. 218. ARUNDO 4. 5. A writing-reed. Cic. Att. vi. 8. Hor. A. P. 447. ARUNDO 5. 6. Also a tall reed or cane, set up as a sign-post in the sandy deserts of Egypt. Plin. H. N. vi. 33. CALANT'ICA, CALAUT'ICA, or CALVAT'ICA (/c^Se^i/oy). A cap fastened on by a ligature round the head, with a kind of curtain or lappets hanging down on both sides as far as the tips of the shoulders (Eustath. ad II. xiv. 184. ), so that they might be drawn together at pleasure, and made to conceal the whole face. (Horn. Od. i. 334. II. xiv. 184.) It was commonly worn by the Egyp- tians of both sexes (Riddle, s. v.), and is consequently of frequent occur- rence in the paintings and sculp- tures belonging to that nation, pre- cisely similar to the example here introduced, which is copied from a statue of Isis in the Capitol at Rome. When adopted by the Greeks and Romans, its use was confined to the female sex (Non. Marc. s.v. p. 537.), or to persons who affected a foreign or effeminate costume. Cic. Fragm. Or. in Clod. p. 115. ed. Amed. Pey- ron. Lips. 1824. The affinity of the Greek and Latin words, and their identity with the figure in the engraving, may be established thus. The Greek term is derived from Kpds, and Sew or Seyuo, meaning literally that which is fast- ened by a ligature to the head, and Nonius (Z. c.) gives a similar inter- pretation to the Latin one — quod capiti innectitur : whilst Ausonius (Perioch. Od. 5.), translates the Kpf)8efji.vov of Homer by the Latin calantica or calvatica. The illustra- CALATIIISCUS. CALCAR. 97 tion and derivation of the Greek word also explain another of the senses in which it is used (Horn. Od. in. 392.) ; viz. a leather cap tied over the mouth and bung of a vessel con- taining wine or other liquids, which the lexicographers erroneously trans- late, "the lid of a vessel." The illustration moreover will explain why Cicero (1. c.) and Servius (ad Virg. JEn. ix. 616.) use the words calantica and mitra as nearly con- vertible terms (compare the illustra- tions to each word) ; and, at the same time, account for one of the Latin names, calvatica, which is probably the only true one, because in Egypt it really was used to cover the bald heads of the priests of Isis (grege calvo, Juv. Sat. vi. 533.), and at Rome by old women who had lost their hair, as in. the medal of Aurelia, the mother of Julius Caesar (Guasco, Ornatrici, p. 91.), which is fastened round the head with a band, precisely like the example introduced above. CALATHIS'CUS (/coAa^V/cos). Diminutive of CALATHUS. Catull. Ixiv. 320. CAL'ATHUS (/crfAaflos). A woman's work-basket (Virg. JEn. vii. 805.), made of wicker- work, and gradually expanding upwards towards the top (Plin. H. N. xxi. 11.) j espe- cially employed for containing the wool and materials for spinning (Juv. Sat. ii. 54.), as in the example, which re- presents Leda's work-basket, from a Pompeian painting, with the balls of wool and bobbins in it. 2. A basket of precisely the same form and material, employed out of doors for holding fruit, flowers, cheese, &c., which is of very com- mon occurrence in ancient works of art. Virg. Ed. ii. 46. Id. Georg. iii. 400. Ov. A. Am. ii. 264. 3. A drinking-cup, which we may naturally infer to have been so termed, because it resembled a woman's work- basket in shape ; as shown by the figure in the illustration, held by a cupbearer in one of the miniatures of the Vatican Virgil. Virg. Eel. v. 71. Mart. Ep. ix. 60. 15. Id. xiv. 107. 4. The modius, or bushel, which was placed as an ornament upon the top of the head of Jupiter Serapis, (Macrob. Sat. i. 20.), and which, as seen in the ex- ample, from an en- graved gem, re- presenting the head of Serapis, possessed the same form as a woman's work-basket. CALA'TOR. A public crier; particularly one who was attached to the service of the priesthood (Suet. Gramm. 12.), whose duty it was to precede the high-priest on his way to the sacrifice, and put a stop to any kind of work, which it was considered would pollute the ceremony on a fes- tival or holy day. Serv. ad Virg. Georg. i. 268. 2. A private servant or messenger. Plaut. Merc. v. 2. 11. Id. Hud. ii. 3. 5. CALAUT'ICA. See CALANTICA. CALCAR. A horseman's spur (Plaut. As. iii. 3. 118. Virg. &n. vi. 882.) ; so called, because it was affixed to the heel (calx) of the rider (Isi- dor. Orig. xx. 16. 6. compare Virg. JEn. xi. 714.) ; whence the manner of applying it is clearly illustrated by the expression subdere equo calcaria. (Curt. vii. 4. compare iv. 16.) The 98 CALCATOR. CALCEOLARIUS. right-hand figure in the annexed engraving represents an original from Caylus (Recueil d'Antiq. vol. iii. pi. 59. No. 5.), and closely resembles one found at Herculaneum, excepting that the latter has its point formed like a lance head, or lozenge shaped. All the ancient spurs are like these, with a simple goad, calcis aculeus (Columell. viii. 2. 8., where it is applied to poultry), and not rowelled. The left-hand figures present a side and back view of the left foot of a statue in the Vatican, representing an Amazon, and show the straps and fastenings by which the spur was fixed to the foot ; the goad itself is broken off, but the place from which it projected is clearly seen. The right foot of the statue is not equipped in the same way ; from which circum- stance some antiquaries incline to the belief that the ancients only rode with one spur, and that one on the left leg. 2. In like manner, the spur which grows out from the heel of a cock. Columell. viii. 2. 8. CALCA'TOR (Aifro&fT^j). One who crushes grapes for making wine, by treading them out with the naked feet, as is still the practice in Italy. (Calpurn. Ed. iv. 124.) In the il- lustration, from a bas-relief in the Library of St. Mark at Venice, the operation is performed by two per- sons only, represented as Fauns; but in other ancient works of art, as many as seven persons are seen in the vat at the same time, sometimes supporting themselves by ropes over head, but more commonly with crutch-handled sticks, like those in the annexed engraving. CALCATO'RIUM. A raised platform of masonry in the cellar attached to a vineyard (cella vinaria), which was ascended by two or three steps, and intended to form a gang- way on a level with the tops of the large vessels (dolia, cupoe), in which the wine was kept in bulk, for the convenience of the persons who su- perintended its manufacture and sale. (Pallad. L 18. 1.) It was so called a calcando, or ab opere calcato ; and is incorrectly explained in the dic- tionaries, where it is taken for a vat in which the grapes were trodden out (see the preceding wood-cut) ; for a contrivance of that description belongs clearly to the press-room (torcularium), in which the wine was made, and not to the cellar (cella vinaria), in which it was stored. Cato designates the same thing by the term suggestion. H. R. 154. CALCEA'MEN. Same as CAL- CEUS. CALCEAMEN'TUM. A gene- ral term, expressive of all kinds of covering for the feet ; including the various descriptions of boots and shoes enumerated in the classed Index. CALCEOLA'RIUS. A shoe- maker. (Plaut, Aul iii. 5. 38.) The illustration is from a painting exca- vated at Resina, representing the interior of a shoe-maker's shop, in which the two genii here figured are employed at their trade. CALCEOLUS. CALCEUS. 99 CALCE'OLUS Diminutive of CALCEUS ; a small shoe or boot ; and thence more espe- cially applied to those worn by women. (Cic. N.D. i. 29.) The en- graving represents three specimens of women's shoes from the Pompeian paintings, of the most usual descrip- tions. It will be observed that all of them reach as high as the ankle, are made with soles and low heels, and with or without ties ; but those which are tied are either fastened by a cord drawn in a hem round the top, or have merely a slit over the instep, through the sides of which the lace is passed, and not lappets, as was more usual in men's shoes. (See the next illustration.) There does not appear to have been any material difference between the shoes of the Greek and Roman females; for the latter took their fashions from Greece, as ours do from France. CAL'CEUS (fcr&itfia KoiXo*). A shoe or boot, made upon a last, and right and left (Suet. Aug. 92.), so that it would completely cover the foot, as contradistinguished from the sandal, slipper, &c., which were only partial coverings. (Cic Hor. Suet. Plin.) The illustration represents a lace-up or half boot, from a bronze vase in the Collegio Romano, and two men's shoes of the ordinary kind, from paintings at Pompeii. 2. Calceus patricius. The shoe worn by the Roman senators, which was of a different character from that worn by the rest of the citizens, whence the expression calceos mutare (Cic. Phil xiii. 13.) means, "to become a senator." It was fastened by straps crossing each other over the instep (Isidor. Orig. xix. 34. 4.), and then carried round the leg as far as the bottom of the calf, as is fre- quently seen on statues draped in the toga, and in the manner represented by the annexed figures, of which the front view is taken from a bronze, the side one from a marble statue. A lunated ornament, called LUNULA, was moreover attached to them, for an account of which see that word. 3. Calceus repandus. A shoe with a long pointed toe bent upwards or backwards. (Cic. Nat. Deor. i. 29., but the diminutive is used because applied to a female.) This form appears to have been of great anti- quity, for it is frequently seen in Egyptian and Etruscan monuments, from which latter people it came, like many other of their fashions, to the Romans, and remained in common use in many parts of Europe until a late period of the middle ages. The illustration here given is Etruscan (Gori, Mus. Etrusc. tab. 3. and 47.), but it resembles exactly the shoes worn by a figure of Juno Lanuvina on a Roman denarius (Visconti, Mus. P. Clem. torn. 2. tav. A. vii. No. 12.), which is draped in every respect as Cicero (I. c.) describes her. In a passage of Cato, quoted by Festus (s. Mulleos), the epithet uncinatus is, according to Scaliger's emendation, applied to a shoe of this character ; and the term uncipedes to the persons who wore them, by Tertullian, de Pall 5. o 2 100 CALCULATOK. CALDAR1UM. CALCULATOR. An account- ant (Mart. Ep. x. 62.) : so called because the ancients used to reckon with small stones (calculi) upon a board covered with sand. (Isidor. Orig. x. 43. ABA- CUS.) The example is from an Etruscan gem, and represents an arithmetician sitting at a table on which the peb- bles for making his calculations are seen, while the counting board, in- scribed in Etruscan characters, which are interpreted to mean " a calcu- lator," is held in his left hand. CAL/CULUS OJfifaos). Literally a pebble, or small stone worn round by friction, which was employed by the ancients for several purposes, as follows: — 1. For mosaic work. Plin. H. N. xxxvi. 67. 2. A counter for reckoning. Cic. Amic. 16. preceding wood-cut, and ABACUS. 3. A pebble used in voting, which was thrown into the urn ; a white one to acquit, and a black one to condemn. Ovid. Met. xv. 41. 4. A counter employed in games of chance or skill, for the same purpose as our chess and draughtsmen; and the term is applied indiscriminately to the men employed in the Indus duodecim scriptorum, or backgammon, and in the ludus latrunculorum, or draughts. Ov. Am. ii. 207. Val. Max. viii. 8. 2. Aul. Gell. xiv. 1. 9. CALDA'RIUM. The thermal chamber in a set of baths. (Vitruv. v. 10. Seneca, Ep. 86. Celsus, i. 4.) In all the baths which have been discovered, public as well as private, this apartment is constantly arranged upon a uniform plan, and consists of three principal parts ; a semicircular alcove (laconicum) at one end (the right hand in the engraving), with a labrum upon a raised stem in the centre of it; a vacant space in the centre of the room (sudatio, sudato- rium) ; and a warm -water bath (alveus) at the other extremity — all which parts were essential to the ancient system of bathing. In the central portion, the bather exercised himself by lifting weights and performing gymnastics, for the purpose of ex- citing perspiration ; he then sat down in the laconicum, and underwent a profuse perspiration, superinduced by the hot air proceeding from the flues seen under the flooring of the room ; or entered the warm water bath, if preferred, instead. It is probable that in the more magnificent and extensive structures, such as the Roman Ther- mae, separate apartments were appro- priated for each of these operations ; but in the smaller establishments, such as the baths of Pompeii, and in private houses, the thermal chamber, in all the instances hitherto dis- covered, and they are many, is uni- formly arranged in the manner de- scribed, and shown by the illustration, which represents the section of a bath-room attached to an ancient Roman villa at Tusculum. The relative situation and arrangement of such chambers in connection with the other parts of the establishment, and the general ground- plan, will be understood by referring to the illus- trations, s. BALJNE.S:, letters D and H ; and BALINEUM, letter D. 2. The boiler in which the warm water for supplying a bath was heated (Vitruv. v. 10.) as seen in the preceding section over the furnace (No. 2.), with a conduit tube into the bath. See also AHENUM 2., where CALENDAR1UM. CALIGARIUS. 101 the principle upon which the ancients constructed and arranged their coppers is explained. CALENDA'RIUM (rj/j.€po\6yiot>'). An almanack or calendar; which, like our own, contained the astrono- mical, agricultural, and religious notices of each month in the year ; the name of the month, the number of days it contained, and the length of the day and night ; the sign of the zodiac through which the sun passes ; the various agricultural ope- rations to be performed in the month ; the divinity under whose guardian- ship the month was placed ; and the various religious festivals which fell NON . QUINT . DIES . HOR . VIIIIS . NOX . ROR . XIIII . SOL. CAPRICORNO . TUTKLA . JUNONIS • PALUS AQUITUR . SALIX . HAH UNDO OSJDITUR SACRmCAN . CIS. PBNATIBUS. in it. The illustration represents an original of marble, found at Pompeii, with the inscription for the month of January, printed at length, as a spe- cimen of the whole, by its side. 2. A ledger in which bankers and money lenders kept their accounts with their customers ; so termed because the interest became due on the calendce, or first day of the month. Seneca, Benef. vii. 10. Id. Ep. 87. CALIC'ULUS (KvXtKiov). Dimin- utive of CALIX. CALIDA'RIUM. See OALDA- RIUM. CALIEN'DRUM. A sort of covering which Roman women some- times wore upon their heads, but the exact nature of which it is not easy to determine. (Hor. Sat. i. 8. 48. Varro, teste Porphyr. Schol. ad Hor. I.e. Acron. e'6.) It was, however, a kind of head-dress, and probably in the nature of a cap, like that shown by the illustration, which is copied from an engraved gem representing a por- trait of Faustina the younger; and might be made in different patterns ; for Ca- nidia wore a high one. (Hor. /. c.) Some think that the caliendrum was made of hair, and was a sort of wig. CAL'IGA. The shoe worn by the Roman soldiery of the rank and file, including the centurions, but not the superior officers. (Cic. Att. ii. 3. Justin, xxxviii. 10. Juv. Sat. xvi. 24. Suet. Cal. 52.) It consisted of a close shoe, which entirely covered the foot (see CALIGARIUS) ; had a thick sole studded with nails (CLAVUS CALIGARIS), and was bound by straps across the instep and round the bottom part of the leg, as represented in the illustration, from the arch of Trajan. CALIGA'RIUS. One who fol- lowed the trade of making soldiers' shoes (caligce). (Lamprid. Alex. Sev. 33. Inscript. ap. Grut. 649. 1 ) The example is from a sepulchral marble at Milan, which bears the inscription SuroR CALIGARIUS, thus identifying the trade. It is of coarse execution, and has suffered from age, but is a valuable relic, because it proves that the caliga was a close- 102 CALIGATUS. CALONES. fitting shoe, made upon a last, and not a sandal, which left the toes exposed, as has been generally in- ferred from Bartoli's engravings of the triumphal arches and columns. The workman appears to hold the handle of an awl in his right hand, and in the left a caliga on the last, while the fellow-shoe is on the table before him. CALIGA'TUS. Wearing the caliga, or soldier's shoe (Juv. Sat. in. 322.), as seen in the last cut but one ; and thence by implication, a common soldier (Suet. Aug. 25. Id. Vitell 7.), because its use was peculiar to the rank and file. CALIP'TRA or CALYFTRA /caAuTrrpa, Kd\v/j.fji.a). A veil worn in public by the young women of Greece and Italy, for the purpose of conceal- ing the features from the gaze of strangers (Festus, s. v. Horn. Od. v. 232. Soph. Ag. 245.), very similar to what the Turkish women still use. It was placed on the top of the head, and wrapped round the face in such a man- ner as to conceal every part of it ex- cept the upper por- tion of the nose and one of the eyes and fell down over the shoulders to about the middle of the figure, precisely as seen in the illustration, from a small terra-cotta figure in the Collegio Romano. A veil of this kind was also worn by the brides of Greece (jEsch. Ag. 1149.), and the same costume is still preserved at Rome for the young women who receive a dowry from the state on the festival of the An- nunciation. CALIX (icfai|). A shallow cir- cular wine-goblet, of Greek invention (Macrob. Sat. v. 21.), with a low stem, and two small handles, like the example, from an original of terra cotta ; frequently represented on their fictile vases in carousals and drinking scenes, and commonly met with in every collection, sometimes decorated with drawing, and at others merely covered with an uniform coat of lustrous black varnish. 2. A sort of soup plate or vegetable dish, in which food of a liquid na- ture, and vegetables more especially, were cooked and brought to table. (Varro, L.L. v. 127. Ovid, Fast. v. 509.) The illustration an- nexed is from an original of earthen- ware found in the catacombs at Rome. The edges of the platter on which it stands, and which is in the same piece as the top, have suffered from time ; but the general form of the whole seems sufficiently applicable to the purposes described. 3. A water-meter: i.e. a copper cap or tube of certain length and capacity, attached to the end of a main pipe at the part where it was inserted into the reservoir of an aqueduct (castellum), or to the end of a branch pipe inserted in the main, for the purpose of measuring the quantity of water discharged into the pipe. Every private house and public establishment in the city of Rome was by law entitled to the supply of a certain quantity of water, and no more than what the law allowed ; it was measured out by means of the calix, the length and diameter of which being fixed, the number of cubic feet of water passing through it in a given time could be regulated to a nicety. Frontin. Aq. 36. CALO'NES. Slaves belonging to the Roman soldiery (Festus, s. v.\ who followed their masters to the field, waited upon them as servants, attended at their exercises, and per- formed all the duties required of a menial, such as carrying the vallum, &c. Cic. Nat. Deor. iii. 5. Serv. ad CALPAK. CAMINUS. 103 Virg. JEneid. vi. 1. and Nonius *. v. p. 62. 2. A farm-servant (Hor. Sat. i. 6. 103.); a palanquin or sedan bearer (Senec. Ep. 110.) ; and thus a menial generally. CALPAR. An antiquated name for DOLIDM ; which had already grown obsolete in the time of Varro, De Vit. Pop. Ro. ap. Non. s. v. p. 546. CAL'THULA. An article of female attire which appears to have been much in vogue at the time of Plautus. (EpuL ii. 2. 49.) It is supposed to have received its name from the caltha (Non. Marc. s. v. p. 548.), the calendula officinalis of Linnaeus, which is a flower of a yellow colour ; but it is impossible to ascertain the exact nature of merely local or temporary fashions. CALVAT'ICA. See CALANTICA. CALX. The same as LINEA ALBA ; the chalked rope which marked the commencement and boundary of a race-course in the Cir- cus ; but this term is mostly used in a figurative sense, to indicate the end of anything, especially of life, the course and casualties of which are often typified by the race, its chances, changes, and accidents. Cic. Sen. 23. Id- Tusc. i. 8. CAM'ARA, or CAM'ERA (KO- Strictly speaking, is a Greek word adopted into the Latin language (Cic. Q. Fr. iii. 1. 1. Pallad. i. 13. 1.), and used by the Roman archi- tects to designate the vaulted ceiling of a chamber, when constructed in wood and plaster (Vitruv. vii. 3. cf. Propert. iii. 2. 10.), instead of a re- gular arch of brickwork or masonry formed of regular intrados and voussoirs. This constitutes the real distinction between the terms camara and fornix ; but the former was also transferred in a more general sense to any kind of apartment or building which had a vaulted ceiling. It con- tains the elements of our word cham- ber, through the modern Italian ca- mara, their ordinary expression for a room of any kind. 2. Camera vitrea. A. vaulted ceiling, of which the surface was lined with plates of glass. Plin. H. N. xxxvi. 64. Compare Stat. Sylv. i. 3. 53. and i. 5. 42. 3. A small vessel used by the Greek pirates, capable of containing from twenty-five to thirty men. It was of a very peculiar construction, being made sharp fore and aft. but round, large, and full in the centre or midship, with the ribs rising upwards from the water, and converging to- gether, so as to form a sort of roof over the vessel, from which pecu- liarity its name was derived, (Strabo, xi. 2. 12. Tac. Hist. iii. 47. Aul. Gell. x. 25. 3.) An old engraving by F. Huiis after the elder Brengel, and published by Jal (Archeologie Navale, vol. ii. p. 255.), exhibits the stern of a vessel constructed in the manner described, and probably pre- serves a trace of the ancient camara. CAMEL'LA. A wooden bowl for drinking out of, the form and peculiarities of which are entirely unknown. Ov. Fast. iv. 779. Pet. Sat. 135. § 3 and 4. Id. 64. § 13. CAMILLUS(KoSouAosorKo8«Ao$). An attendant who waited upon the high priest while of- ficiating at the sacri- fice; as the CAMILLA was a young female who attended in like manner upon his wife. They were selected from the children of noble families (Ma- crob. Sat. iii. 8. Fes- tus, *. Flamininius), and are frequently re- presented in ancient works of art, standing at the side of the priest or priestess, and bearing in their hands the vessels employed in the sacred rite. The example here introduced is from the Vatican Virgil. CAMI'NUS (K^J/OS). A smelling 104 CAMINUS. furnace. (Plin. H. N. xxxiii. 21.) The illustration represents the section and plan of a Roman smelting-fur- nace discovered near Wandsford in Northamptonshire. (Artis, Duro- briv. pi. 25.) A is the smelting pot, below which the fire was kindled, as shown in the illustration to FORNA- CULA ; B, the slag lying about as it ran from the furnace ; c, the channel which conveyed the metal into the moulds, D. 2. A blacksmith's forge (Virg. JEn. vi. 630. Juv. Sat. xiv. 118.), which, as shown by the annexed illustration, from a sepulchral marble at Rome, resembled in all respects those of our own days. The centre figure holds the iron on the anvil (incus) by a pair of pincers (forceps") ; under the anvil is a vessel with water, for plunging the heated iron and instru- ments into ; the fire is seen in the back ground; and the bellows (fottis), with a man working them, behind the left-hand figure. 3. A hearth or fire-place in private houses, for the purpose of warming an apartment (Hor. Ep. i. 11. 19. Id. Sat. i. 5. 81. Suet. Vitell 8.), or for cooking, such as in early times was constructed in the atrium, and which consisted of a mere stone hearth raised above the level of the floor, and upon which the logs of firewood were placed, but without a flue to carry away the smoke. 4. It still remains a doubtful point, whether caminus ever means a chim- ney in our sense of that word, that is, a flue intended to carry off smoke through the different stories of a house, and discharge it above the roof ; as the passages which might be cited for that purpose are not at all conclusive, and the absence of any thing like a chimney on the top of a building in the numerous landscapes pourtrayed by the Pompeian artists, and of any positive traces of such a contrivance in the public and private edifices of that town, affords sufficient evidence that, if known to the an- cients, it must have been very rarely applied; consequently, in most houses, the smoke must have escaped through a mere opening in the roof, at the windows, or through the doors. But contrivances for making a fire in the centre of a room, accompanied at least with a short flue, have been discovered in several parts of Italy, one at Baise, another near Perugia, and a third at Civita Vecchia, the plan of which is given in the annexed wood- cut, from a MS. by Francesco di Giorgio, preserved in the public library at Siena. The form is a parallelogram, entirely enclosed by a wall of ten feet high on three of its sides, but having an opening or doorway on the other. Within this shell are placed four columns with an architrave over them, which supported a small pyra- midal cupola, underneath which the fire was made on the hearth ; the cupola served to collect the smoke as it ascended, and allowed it to pass CAMPESTRE. CANALIS. 105 out through an aperture in its top. If the edifices in which these stoves were constructed were only one story high, no flue, perhaps, was used ; hut if, as is most probahle, there were apartments above, it seems almost certain that a small flue or tube would have been placed over the vent hole of the cupola, in the same manner as it is in a baker's oven at Pompeii, which is represented in the annexed engraving; though the original height cannot be determined, as only a portion of the ground story now remains. CAMPES'TRE. A kilt, fastened round the loins, and reaching about two thirds down the thigh ; worn for the sake of decency by gladiators and soldiers while training, or by persons taking violent exercise in public, when otherwise divested of clothing (Hor. Ep. i. 11. 18. Augus- tin. Civ. Dei, xiv. 17.); so called because these exercises were com- monly performed in the Campus Martius. In very hot weather it was also worn by some persons, instead of a tunic, under the toga. (Ascon. in Cic. Orat. pro Scauro,) The illustration represents a gladiator with the campestre, from a terra -cotta lamp. CAMPICUR'SIO. A sort of re- view, or exercise performed by the Roman soldiery in the Campus Mar- tius. Veget. Mil. iii. 4. CAMPIDOC'TOR OAoStSa/c-Hjj). A drill sergeant, who taught the re- cruits their exercises in the Campus Martius. Veget. Mil. iii. 6. and 8. Ammian. xv. 3. 10. CANALIC'ULA. Diminutive of CANALIS ; a small drain, ditch, or gutter. Varro, R. R. iii. 5. CANALIC'ULUS. Diminutive of CANALIS ; a small drain, ditch, or gutter. Columell. viii. 15. 6. Vitruv. x. 9. 7. 2. The channel or groove in- cavated on the face of a triglyph (Vitruv. iv. 3. 5.), marked by shading in the example, from an ancient Doric temple formerly existing in the forum at Rome, as copied from the original by Labacco. CANA'LIS <r«Atf»>. An open 106 CANCELLARIUS. CANDELA. channel, artificially made, of wood or brickwork, for the purpose of supply- ing cattle with water in the meadows, and thus serving as a drinking trough, as seen in the illustration from the Vatican Virgil. Virg. G. iii. 330. Varro, R. E. iii. 5. 2. Vitruv. viii. 5. 2. and 6. 1., where it is distin- guished from TUBUS and FISTULA. 2. Canalis in Foro. Probably the gutter or kennel, as we say, near the centre of the Roman forum, from which the rain waters were immedi- ately discharged through an opening into the Cloaca Maxima or main sewer (Plaut. Cure. iv. 1. 15.); whence the word canalicola was in- vented as a nick-name for a lazy, idle fellow, because such people used to loiter and lounge away their time about this spot. Festus, s. v. 3. A narrow alley or passage in a town. Liv. xxiii. 31. 4. A splint, employed by surgeons in setting broken bones. Celsus, viii. 16. 5. In architecture, the channel in an Ionic capital, which is a smooth flat surface lying be- tween the abacus and cymatium or echi- nus, and terminating in the eye of the volute. (Vitruv. iii. 5. 7.) It is clearly shown in the engraving, which represents a capital from the temple of Fortuna Virilis at Rome. CANCELLA'RIUS. A word introduced at a late period of the empire, and applied either to an officer who kept guard before the emperor's tent, or his sleeping apart- ment, the approach to which was closed by gratings (cancetti), as we learn from Cassiodorus (Var. Ep. ii. 6.), whence the appellation : or to a sort of chief clerk presiding over a body of juniors who assisted the judges in a court of law, the tribunes of which, where the judges and their officers sat, were in like manner separated from the body of the court by an iron railing. Hence we derive our term of "chancellor." Vopisc. Carin. 16. Cassiodor. I.e. CANCELLI (Kiyxis, SpfyaKTov). Iron gratings and trellis work ; in- tended as an ornamental fence to enclose or protect anything (Varro, R. R. iii. 5. 4. Columell. viii. 1. 6.) ; for instance, before the judges' tribune in a court of law ; in front of the rostrum in the forum (Cic. Sext. 58.), which by some writers is re- cognized in the annexed scene, from the arch of Constantine ; along the top of the podium, and each distinct tier of seats in an amphitheatre (Ov. Am. iii. 2. 64.), as shown in the restored section of the amphitheatre of Pola (p. 29. A) ; and in short for any situation requiring such an object. CANDE'LA. A candle made of pitch, wax, or tallow, with the pith of a bull-rush for the wick (Plin. H.N. xvi. 70.), which was used in early times before the invention of the oil lamp. Mart. Ep. xiv. 43. 2. A sort of torch, made of the fibres of the papyrus twisted together like a rope, or of a rope itself coated with wax (Serv. ad Virg. JEn. xi. 143. Varro, L.L. v. 119.), which was anciently carried in funeral pro- cessions ; and is represented in the illustration, from a sepulchral marble at Padua, which, according to the tradition there preserved, is believed to contain the remains of St. Luke. 3. A mere rope coated with wax CANDELABRUM. 107 to preserve it from decay. Liv. xl. 29. CANDELA'BRUM. A contri- vance devised for the purpose of supporting a light in a position suffi- ciently elevated above the ground to distribute the rays to a convenient distance around it. Of these the ancients had in use several kinds, viz. 1. (Aux^X05)' A candle-stick for holding tapers or candles of wax and tallow. These were either made like our own, with a socket and nozzle into which the end of the candle was inserted (Varro, op. Macrob. Sat. iii. 4. Festus, s. u.) ; or with a sharp point at the end, like those so commonly seen in the churches of Italy, upon which the bottom of the candle was stuck. (Serv. ad Virg. JEn. i. 727.) An ex- ample of the former kind is given in the illustration, from an original found at Pompeii; and an engraved gem of the Worsley Museum affords a specimen of the last sort, hi which the sharp point is seen projecting from the top. 2. (Avx^ouxos). A portable lamp- stand, upon which an oil-lamp was placed. These were sometimes made of wood (Pet. Sat. 95. 6.), but mostly of metal (Cic. Verr. ii. 4. 26), and were either intended to be placed upon some other piece of furniture, like the annexed example, which represents a bronze lamp and stand found at Pompeii, of the kind termed humile (Quint. Inst. vi. 3. 99.), which was meant to be placed upon a table ; or they were made to stand upon the ground ; in which case they were of considerable height, and consisted of a tall slender stem (scapus\ generally imi- tating the stalk of a plant, or a tapering column, and a round flat dish or tray (super- ficies) at the top, on which the lamp was placed, like the an- nexed illustration from a Pompeian original. It is to candelabra of this description that Vitruvius alludes (vii. 5. 3.), when he reprehends the practice adopted by the artists of his own day, and of such frequent occur- rence in the arabesque decorations of the Pompeian houses, of introducing them in the place of columns, as architectural supports to architraves and other superincumbent weights, out of all proportion with such tall and slender stems. Compare also LYCHNUCHUS. 3. (Aa/iTTT^p). A tall stand, with a hollow cup, instead of the flat superficies, at the top, in which pitch, rosin, or other inflammable materials were lighted. These were not port- able, but were perma- nently fixed in their situations ; and were frequently made of marble, and fastened down to the ground; not only in the interior of temples and other large buildings, but also in the open air (Stat. Sylv. i. 2. 231.), where they served for illu- minations on festivals and occasions of rejoicing, precisely as they are still used for similar pur- poses in front of the cardinals' and p 2 108 CANEPHORA. CANO. ambassadors' palaces at Rome in the present day. The illustration is taken from a bas-relief in the Villa Borghese, and exemplifies this cus- tom ; for it stands as an illumination in front of an open colonnade, under •which a band of maidens are dancing, upon the occasion of a marriage festival. In the early or Homeric times the Aa/tiTrr^p was a sort of grate raised upon legs, or on a stand, in which dried wood (jbcmntov) was burnt, for the purpose of giving light to a room, instead of torches, candles, or lamps. Horn. Odyss. xviii. 306— 310. CANE'PHORA or CANE'PHO- ROS (Kwntf>6pos). The basket-bearer; a young Athenian maiden, who walked ,in the procession at the festivals of De- meter, Bacchus, and Athena, carrying a flat basket (canum, or canistrum, Festus, s.v.) on her head, in which were deposited the sacred cake, chaplet, frankincense, and knife employed to slay the victim. Young women are frequently represented in this capacity by the ancient artists, and similarly described by classic authors, with their arms raised up, and in the exact attitude of the figure here en- graved, from a statue at Dresden. Cic. Verr. ii. 4. 3. Plin. H. N. xxxvi. 4. n. 7. Compare Ovid, Met. ii. 711—713. CANIC'ULA. Pers. Sat. iii. 49. Same as CANIS 2. C ANIS. A chain ; but whether of any particular description is doubtful ; though probably not, as the expression may have originated in a play upon the words catella, catellus. Plaut. Cas. ii. 6. 37. Becker, Gallus, p. 232. transl. 2. The worst throw upon the dice ; i.e. when all aces were turned up. Suet. Aug. 71. CANISTEL'LUM. Diminu- tive of CANISTRUM. CANIS'TRUM and CANIS'TER (tcdveov, KO.VTIS). A large, flat, open basket, whence termed patulum (Ov. Met. viii. 675.), and latum (Id. Fast. ii. 650.), made of wicker-work (Pal- lad, xii. 17.), and without handles, so as to be adapted for carrying on the head, as shown by the figure in the opposite column; particularly em- ployed as a bread-basket (Virg. Mn. viii. 180.), in reference to which use the example here introduced, from a Pompeian painting, is carried by Ceres, and filled with ears of corn. CANO. To sing generally ; but also to sound, or play upon, any mu- sical instrument (Cic. Div. ii. 59.) ; as lituo canere (Cic. Div. i. 17.), to sound the lituus (see wood-cut s. LITICEN) ; cornu canere (Varro, L.L. v. 91.), to sound the horn (see CORNICEN) ; tibiis canere (Quint, i. 10. 14.), to play upon the pipes (TIBICEN); cithara canere (Tac. Ann. xiv. 14.), to play the guitar (ClTHARISTA). 2. Intus et foris canere ; an ex- pression descriptive of the peculiar mode of playing upon the lyre, which is represented in the annexed en- graving, from the Aldobrandini fresco in the Vatican. To strike the chords merely with the plectrum held in the right hand, was foris canere ; to thrum the chords merely with the fingers of the left hand was intus ca- nere ; but when the two were used to- CANTERIUS. gether, and both sides of the instru- ment struck at once, as in the en- graving, the musician was said to play on the inside and out, intus et foris canere. Ascon. ad Cic. Verr. 11. 1. 20. CANTE'RIUS. A gelding. Varro, R.R. ii. 7. 15. Festus, s. v. 2. A prop for vines. Columell. iv. 12. 1. 3. A machine used for suspending horses with broken legs, to keep their feet off the ground while the bone is setting. Veget. Vet. iii. 47. 2. 4. In architecture, CANTERII (ct/uei- §OVT€S, ffvarrdrai) are the canthers or principal rafters in the timber work of a roof (see MATERIATIO,^/!/!) ; their upper ends meet together, and form the apex of the pediment ; their lower extremities rest upon the tie- beams (tignd) ; and in the finished building are represented externally by mutules (mutuli\ which are, therefore, carved to represent the projecting extremities of a series of rafters. Vitruv. iv. 2. 1. and 3. CANTERFOLUS (o/cpteos). A painter's easel; represented in the annexed engraving, with the picture on it, from a Roman bas-re- lief, precisely similar to those still in use. The Greek term for this contrivance is well authenticated ; but the Latin one here given, upon the authority of Riddle's English-Latin Dictionary, though sufficiently appro- priate, wants a positive authority. C ANTH'ARUS (/cckflapos). A gob- let, or drinking cup, of Greek inven- tion. It was furnished with handles (Virg. Eel. vi. 1 7.) ; and was the cup particularly sacred to Bacchus (Ma- crob. Sat. v. 21.), as the scyphus was to Hercules ; conse- quently in works of art, both painting and sculpture, a vessel of the form CAPILLUS 109 here engraved, from a fictile original, is constantly represented in the hands of that divinity. 2. A vase into which the water of an ornamental fountain is discharged, formed in imitation of the drinking cup. Paul. Dig. 30. 41. 3. A sort of boat, the peculiar properties of which, however, are unknown. Macrob. Sat. I. c. Aristoph. Pac. 143. CANTHE'RIUS. See CANTE- RIUS. CANTHUS (tTTiWrpoj/). The tire of a wheel; a hoop of iron or bronze fastened on to the felloe, to preserve the wood from abrasion. (Quint, i. 5. 8.) The Greek name occurs in Homer (//. v. 725. ); the Latin one, though used by Persius (Sat. v. 71.), is noted as a barbarism by Quintilian (/. c. ), who considers it to be a Spanish, or an African, word. CANTO. Used in the same senses as CANO. CANUM (KOTOW). A Greek basket, made of reed or osiers, more usually termed CANISTRUM in Latin. Festus, s. v. Varro, L. L. v. 120. CANUSINA'TUS. Wearing a garment wove from the wool of Ca- nusium, now Canosa. Suet. Nero, 30. Mart. Ep. ix. 23. 9. C APE'DO. An earthenware wine jug, with a handle, such as was used in early times at the sacrifice. (Cic. Farad, i. 2. ) Same as CAPIS. CAPEDUN'CULA. Diminutive of the preceding. Cic. N. D. iii. 17. CAPILLAMEN'TUM. A wig of false hair ; but particularly one in which the hair is very long and abundant, like a woman's head of hair. Suet. Cal. 11. Pet. Sat. 110. 5. Tertull. Cult. Fcem. 7. and GALE- RUS 3. CAPIL'LUS. The hair of the head in general, and without refer- ence to its quality or character ; i. e. equally applied to any description of hair, whether long or short, straight or curly, dressed or undressed. Cic. Ov. Hor. Cses. Nep., &c. 110 CAPIS. CAPITAL. 2. Also applied to the hair of the beard (Cic. Off. ii. 7. Suet. Nero, 1.) ; and to the fur of animals. Ca- tull. 25. 1. Aul. Gell. xii. L 4. CAPIS. A wine jug (Varro, ap. Non. s. Armillum, p. 547.) of early form and usage, made of earthenware, and having a single handle, from which circumstance the Roman gramma- rians derive its name. (Varro, Z. Z. v. 121. Festus, s. t>.) In the early and simple ages of Roman history, earthenware vessels of this description were of common use, both for re- ligious and other purposes (Liv. x.7. Pet Sa*. 52. 2.); but with the increase of lux- ury, they were relinquished for the more elegant Greek forms, or were made of more costly materials (Plin. H.N. xxxvii. 7.), though still retained for purposes of religion, which acquires additional veneration and respect by the preservation of ancient forms and usages ; consequently, they are fre- quently represented on coins and medals struck in honour of persons belonging to the priesthood, similar to the figure here introduced, which is copied from a bronze medal of the emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, on which he is represented in the character of an augur. CAPISTE'RIUM. A vessel em- ployed for cleansing the ears of corn after they had been threshed out and winnowed. It appears to have been something in the nature of an alveus, or wooden trough, into which the corn was put and shaken up, so that the heavy grains subsided to the bottom, while the light ones and any refuse admixture which might have been left amongst them after the winnowing, rose to the top, and could be easily separated from the rest. Possibly also water was em- ployed in the operation. Columell. ii. 9. 11. Compare Apul. Met. ix. p. 193. CAPIS' TRUM Opgcta'). A halter or head-stall for horses, asses, or oxen. (Varro, R. R. ii. 6. 4. Ov. Met. x. 125.) The example is from the Column of Trajan. 2. A nose piece, with spikes stick- ing out from it, to prevent the young of animals from sucking after they had been weaned, such as is com- monly used with calves at the present day. Virg. Georg. iii. 399. 3. A ligature employed in training vines, for fastening them to the up- rights or cross bars of a trellis. Columell, iv. 20. 3. 4. A rope employed for suspending the end of the press beam (prelum) in a wine or oil press. Cato, R. R- xii. 5. A broad leather band or cheek- piece, with an opening for the mouth, worn by pipers, like a halter, round the head and face, in order to com- press the lips and cheeks when blow- ing their instruments, which enabled them to produce a fuller, firmer, and more even tone, as shown by the annexed illustration, from a bas-relief at Rome. It does not appear to have been always used, for pipers are as often represented in works of art without such an appendage as with it ; nor does the Latin name occur in any of their classical writers, though the Greek one is well authenticated. Aristoph. Vesp. 582. Soph. TV. 753. CAPITAL. A small kerchief of CAPITELLUM. CAP1TOLIUM. Ill woollen cloth (Varro, L. L. v. 130.), worn in early times by the Roman women round the head, to keep the hair from flowing loose ; and subse- quently retained as a peculiarity in costume by young females attached to the services of religion, such as the Flaminica, or attendant upon the wife of the Flamen Dialis. Varro, /. c. Festus, s. v. CAPITEL'LUM. Same as CAPI- TULUM. CAPIT'IUM. An article of female attire, worn upon the upper part of the • person, and over the bosom (Varro, L. L. v. 131. Id. de Vit. Pop. Rom. ap. Non. p. 542.), but whether in the nature of a spencer or of a corset, it is difficult to deter- mine. Aulus Gellius notes the word as obsolete and peculiar to the com- mon people ; but in a passage from Laberius quoted by him (xvi. 7. 3.), it is described as of gaudy colours, and worn outside the tunic ; a de- scription which agrees precisely with the style, appearance, and manner in which the peasant women of Italy wear their corsets at the present day, and with the figure here introduced, from a sepulchral marble published by Gori (Inscript. Antiq. Flor. p. 344.), evidently intended to represent a female of the lower class, from the rough stone which serves as a seat for her toilet. CAPITCXLIUM. The Capitol; one of the seven hills of Rome, origi- nally called Mons Saturnius, a name which was subsequently changed into Mons Tarpeius, in allusion to the virgin Tarpeia, who was said to have been killed and buried there by the Sabines ; and finally, during the legendary period, referred to as the reign of Tarquinius Superbus, into Mons Capitolinus or Capitolium, be- cause a human head (caput) was believed to have been found there in digging the foundations for the temple of Jupiter. ( Varro, Z. Z. v. 41, 42. Liv. i. 55.) The hill was ^divided into two summits, with a level space between them : the northern and more elevated one of the two, on which the church of Ara Cell now stands, being made into a fortress, was termed the Ara:, or citadel ; the lower one on the south, now Monte Caprino, being occupied by the fa- mous Capitoline temple. Niebuhr, Hist. Rom. vol. i. p. 502. transl. 2. The Capitoline temple; con- structed by the last Tarquin upon the southern summit of the Mons Capi- tolinus, in honour of the three prin- cipal Roman deities, Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. It comprised three distinct cells (cellce') parallel to each other, but enclosed by one roof, ter- minating in a single pediment ; the centre one was dedicated to Jupiter, that on the right hand of his statue, i. e. on the left of the spectator when 112 CAP1TOLIUM. fronting the edifice, to Minerva, and the other to Juno. The ground-plan was a parallelogram, possessing only a slight difference between its width and length. A triple row of columns supported the pediment in front, and a double one formed a colonnade on each of the flanks; but the rear, which was turned from the city, had no colonnade. (Dionys. iv. 61.) The ground-plan above given is designed in accordance with this description from Dionysius, in order to convey a clear notion of the internal arrange- ment of this remarkable edifice, which was constructed upon a plan so diffe- rent from that usually adopted in their religious buildings by the Greeks and Romans. It is true that the temple described by Dionysius was the one existing in his own day, which was built by Sylla, and dedi- cated by Catulus ; but we have it upon record, that, from a feeling of religious veneration, the original ground-plan was never altered. Tac. Hist. iv. 53. As regards the exterior elevation of this famous temple, nothing but a few blocks of large stones, which formed the substruction, now remain to give a faint idea of all its former splendour ; and the representations of it, which appear upon coins, medals, and bas-reliefs, are too minute and imperfect in respect of details to afford a fair conception of its real character and appearance. It was thrice destroyed by fire, and three times rebuilt, but always upon the former site, and with the same ground-plan. The first structure was certainly of the Etruscan order de- scribed by Vitruvius, for the archi- tects who built it were sent for from Etruriaforthe purpose. (Liv. i. 56.) When rebuilt for the first time by Sylla, the only difference made con- sisted in changing the order into the Corinthian, for the columns were brought from the temple of Jupiter Olympus at Athens ( Plin. H. N. xxxvi. 5.); which Vitruvius expressly says (Proem, vii. 17.) were Corinthian, and some of them are still remaining there to prove the fact. The same plan and architectural order were still preserved under Vespasian (Tac. Hist. iv. 53. ) ; and also in the fourth structure raised by Domitian, as tes- tified by the illustration here annexed, I taken from a bas-relief belonging to the triumphal arch of Marcus Aure- lius, on which that emperor is repre- sented in the act of performing sacri- fice in front of the Capitoline temple. Although the sculpture does not pre- sent a faithful representation of the real elevation, it will be observed that the principal characteristics are sufficiently indicated — the Corinthian order of the columns, and the three separate cells under one pediment, which are expressed by the unusual appearance of three entrance doors. It is well known to those conversant with the works of antiquity, that the ancient artists, both Greek and Ro- man, adopted as a constant practice of their school, a certain conventional manner of indicating, rather than representing, the accessories and lo- calities amongst which the action ex- pressed took place ; instead of the matter-of-fact custom now prevailing of giving a perfect delineation, or, as it were, portraiture, of the identical spot and scene. 3. Capitolium vetus. The old Ca- pitol; a small temple on the Quirinal hill, dedicated to Jupiter, Juno, and CAPITULUM. 113 Minerva, and supposed to have been built by Numa. This name, how- ever, was not given to it until after the erection of the more famous edi- fice on the Capitoline hill, when it was adopted, in order to distinguish the two ; which Martial distinctly does in the following verse — inde novum, veterem prospicis inde Jovem. Mart. Ep. vii. 73. Id. v. 22. Varro, Z. Z. v. 158. Val. Max. iv. 4. 11. CAPIT'ULUM (Mfcpavov, Kiov6- Kpavov). The capital of a column; which, in the infancy of building as an art, was nothing more than a simple abacus, or square tablet of wood, placed on the top of a wooden trunk, the original column, to form a broad bed for the architrave to rest upon. (See the illustration and article ABACUS 6.) From this sim- ple beginning, it became eventually the principal ornament of a column, and a prominent feature by which the different architectural orders are distinguished ; being, like them, and strictly speaking, divided into three kinds, the Doric, Ionic, and Corin- thian capitals, which, with the Roman alterations, make five varieties in use among the ancients ; for the Tuscan, of which no example remains, is only a species of Doric ; and the Compo- site is formed by a union of the Ionic and Corinthian, having the foliage of the latter surmounted by the volutes of the former — a bastard capital in- troduced in the Imperial age, when the genius for invention was suc- ceeded by a love for novelty and splendour, and first employed in the triumphal arches at Rome, where a specimen is still to be seen on the arch of Titus. 1. Capitulum Doricum. GREEK. The Greek Doric capital, which is the simplest of all, i i being divided into ^ i no more than three vyM T i i^n principal parts: the large square abacus at the top, re- taining in this order its primitive character to the last; the echinus or quarter round, immediately below it ; and the anuli, or anulets, just above the neck of the shaft. The example represents a Doric capital from the Parthenon. 2. ROMAN. The Doric of the Romans is more complicated and varied in its parts. Instead of the simple abacus, they substi- tuted a moulded cy- matium and fillet ; in place of the echinus, an ovolo, often broken by carving, as in the exam- ple ; instead of the anulets, either an astragal (astragalus"), or a bead and fillet. The example is from a Roman temple near Albano. 3. Capitulum lonicum. GREEK. The Greek Ionic capital consists of two leading features : the abacus, which is smaller and lower than in the Doric, but still square in its plan, though moulded on the exterior faces ; and the volutes (valuta), or spiral mouldings on each side of the front, which are frequently connected by a pendent hem or fold, as in the example, and hang down much lower than the sculptural echinus between them. The example is from a Greek temple near the Ilyssus. 4. ROMAN. The Roman Ionic does not differ very materially, nor in its essential parts, — . , from the Greek spe- cimens, excepting that it is often elaborately covered with carv- ing ; the volutes are in general smaller, and the tasteful hem which hangs down between them in the preceding engraving is never intro- duced ; but that is not to be con- sidered as an uniform characteristic of the Greek order ; it does not occur in the temple of Bacchus at Teos (introduced s. DENTICULUS), nor in other existing edifices. The exam- ple is from the temple of Fortuna Virilis at Rome. 114 CAPITULUM. CAPREOLUS. 5. Capitulum Corinthium. The Corinthian capital is the richest of all the pure orders, and the specimens now remaining of it in Greece and Italy do not materially differ in any charac- teristic point. It consists of an aba- cus, not square, like that of the Doric and Ionic capitals, but hollowed on the sides, and having the angles cut off, and a rosette (flos) or other similar ornament in the middle. Under the abacus are small volutes (helices, Vitr. iv. 1. 12.), bending downwards like stalks, two of which meet under each angle of the abacus, and two in the centre of each face of the capital, where they sometimes touch, and sometimes are interwoven with each other. The whole is sur- rounded by two circular rows of leaves (folia), each leaf of the upper row growing between and behind those of the lower one, in such a manner that a leaf of the upper row falls in the centre of each of the four faces of the capital. In the best examples, these leaves are carved to imitate the acanthus, or the olive tree, which last is represented in the engraving, from the portico of the Pantheon at Rome. 6. A small circular head-piece, af- fixed to the top of the tablets used by the Roman children at their schools. (Varro, E. E. iii. 5. 10.) It had an eye in its centre, through which a thong or cord was passed, and by which it was slung upon the arm when carried (Hor. Sat i. 6. 74.), or hung up upon a peg, when put by, as in the ex- ample, from a Pompeian painting. 7. In military engines, such as the ballista and catapulta, the capitulum appears to have been a cross-bar with holes in it, through which the cords passed, by the tension of which the missile was discharged (Vitruv. i. 1. 18. Id. x. 10. 2. Id. x, 12. 2.); but as the mechanical construction of these machines has not been ascer- tained, any attempt to determine their component parts would only be conjectural and unsatisfactory. CAPRA'RIUS (aiVrfAos, afye- ACITTJS). A goat-herd, who drove out a flock of goats to pasture ; of which animals the ancients kept large flocks upon their farms. (Varro, 11. E. ii. 3. 10.) The qualities required in him were strength, activity, boldness, and great powers of enduring fatigue, as goats always scatter themselves to browze, and the places which afford their best pasturage are abrupt and precipitous steeps in mountain dis- tricts, which abound with brushwood, wild herbs, and flowers. (Columell. vii. 6. 9. Varro, E. E. ii. 3. 7.) The illustration represents one of the goat-herds of Virgil's Eclogues, from a M S. in the Vatican. CAPRE'OLUS Literally a roe- buck or chamois; and thence an instrument used in husbandry, for raking up and loosening the soil, formed with two iron prongs (Columell. xi. 3. 46.), converging together like the horns of the chamois, as shown by the annexed figure, which is copied from an ancient ivory carving in the Florentine Gallery, where it appears in the hands of a figure standing, with a goat by its side, in CAPRILE. CAPRON^E. 115 the midst of a vineyard, thus identify- ing its object and name. 2. (o-try/cyTmjs.) A brace or strut in carpentry ; i. e. a piece of timber placed in a slanting position in a trussed partition, or in the frame of a roof (E E in the illustration), in order to form a triangle by which the whole construction is made stronger and firmer. In this sense, the word is mostly used in the plural, because they are generally inserted in pairs, meeting together at bottom, and diverging upwards, like the horns of the chamois. Caes. B. C. ii. 10. Vitruv. iv. 2. 1. CAPRFLE. A goat- house. Co- lumell, vii. 6. 6. Varro, R. E. ii. 3. 8. CAPRIMUL'GUS. A milker of goats ; the milk of which animals was extensively used by the ancients. (Catull. xxii. 10.) Properly speak- ing, the caprimulgus was a slave be- longing to the familia rustica, but in the illustration, from a painting at Pompeii, he is represented as a genius, pursuant to the common practice of the ancient schools in similar cases. CAP'RIPES. Goat-footed; a form commonly attributed by poets and painters to Pan and the Satyrs, in order to indicate their libidinous and dissolute pro iv. 583. Hor. nsities. (Lucret. ii. 19. 4.) The illustration is taken from a Pompeian painting. CAPRO'N^E (*poic6mov). The locks of hair which fall down over the centre of the forehead from the top of the head ; distinctly marked in the illustration annexed, from a sup- posed statue of Adonis found in ths amphitheatre of Capua. Non. Marc. 5. v. p. 22. Apul. Flor. i. 3. 3. 2. The forelock of a horse ; when it falls over the forehead, as in the example, from an engraved gem, instead of being tied up into a tuft Q 2 116 CAPSA. CAPULUS. (cirrus), a very common practice. Festus, s. v. Xen. Equest. v. 6. CAPSA. A deep, circular wooden box or case (Plin. H. N. xvi. 84.), in which things are depo- sited to be removed from place to place, but more especially employed for the transport of books. (Cic, in Coel Div. 16. Hor. Sat. i. 4. 22. Ib. 10. 63.) The illustration represents two of these boxes, one open with the rolls or volumes inside it, from a Pompeian painting ; the other, with the lid shut down and locked, from a MS. of Virgil in the Vatican. Both have straps attached, for the conve- nience of carrying them about. CAPSA'RIUS. A slave who carried his young master's capsa, or box of books to and from school. Suet. Nero, 36. Juv. Sat. x. 117. 2. A slave attached to the service of the public baths, whose duty it was to take charge of the wearing apparel left by the bathers in the undressing room, to prevent their being stolen; a species of theft fre- quently occurring at Rome. Paul. Dig. i. 15. 3. Compare Ovid, Art. Amat. iii. 639. Plaut. Rud. ii. 3. 51. CAPSEL'LA. A double diminu- tive of CAPSA ; a very small box, in which were kept dried fruits (TJlp. Dig. 33. 7. 12.), or women's trinkets; sometimes suspended from a chain round their necks. Pet. Sat. 67. 9. CAFSULA. Diminutive of CAPSA ; a small box for books or other things (Catull. Ixviii. 36.) j hence the expression homo totus de capsula (Seneca, Ep. 115.), a fop, or, as we also say, one who looks as if he had just come out of a band-box. CAPSUS. The body or interior of a carriage ; like our expression, the inside of a coach. (Vitruv. x. 9. 2.) See the illustrations to CAK- PENTUM. 2. A cage or enclosure for con- fining animals. Veil. i. 16. CAFULA. Diminutive of CA- PIS ; a small wine jug or drinking cup, with a handle to it, which was used with the circular drinking table termed cilibantum. (Varro, L.L. v, 121. Id. de Vit. Pop. Rom. ap. Non. s. Armillum, p. 547.) Vessels of this form and character are frequently represented upon round tables at which parties are drinking, in the paintings of Pompeii, from one of which the annexed illustration is taken, CAPULA'RIS. See CAPULUS 3. CAPULA'TOR. A person em- ployed in the process of oil making, whose business it was to pass and repass the oil from one vat to another, or from the vat into jars, for the pur- pose of refining it, which he did with a sort of ladle or vessel with a handle, similar in form and character to the capis or capula, from which the name originates. Cato, R. R. Ixvi. 1. Co- lumell, xii. 52. 10. CAFULUS (ictiirr)). The handle or haft of any implement which has a straight handle, such as a sickle (Columell. iv. 25. 1. see FALX) ; of a sceptre (Ovid. Met. vii. 506. see SCEPTRUM), as contradistinguished from ansa, which represents a curved or bent one. More especially, the hilt of a sword, which was made of wood, bone, ivory, silver, or gold, and sometimes inlaid with precious stones, and mostly without a guard. (Virg. &n. x. 506. Tac. Ann. ii. 21. Spart. Hadr. 12. Claud, de Laud. Stil ii. 91.) The illustration is copied from an original found at Pompeii. 2. Poetical for stiva; the handle of a plough, which the ploughman CARABUS. CARACALLA. 117 held in his hand to direct its course. (Ov. Pont. i. 8. 57.) See STIVA, and the illustration s. ARATOR. 3. The bier on which a dead body was carried out. (Festus, s. v. Serv. ad Virg. Mn. vi. 222, Lucilius and Novius, ap. Non. s. v. p. 4.) ; whence the epithet capularis is applied to de- signate one who is near his death, or ready for his bier. (Plant. Mil iii. 1. 33.) The illustration is from a bas-relief on a marble sepulchre near Rome. CA'RABUS. A small boat made of wicker-work, like the Welsh 3. Edict. Dioclet. 21. Compare Mart. Ep. i. 93. 8., where it is termed palla " coracle," and covered with raw hides. (Isidor. Orig. xix. 1. 26.) The illustration is given by Scheffer (Mil Nav. p. 810.), from an old MS. of Vitruvius. The lines down the sides, which are more distinct in the original, show the seams where the hides are sewn together. The form of the tiller and rudder, as well as its position at the stern of the boat, which is a very unusual one, but is also seen on a sepulchral marble in Boldetei (Cimiterj, p. 366.), indicates a late period. CARACAL'LA. An article of dress worn by the Gauls, which occupied the same relative position in their attire as the \ITUV of the Greeks and tunica of the Romans. It differed, however, from them in form and size ; for it was a tight vest, with long sleeves, the skirts of which reached about half way down the thighs, and were slit up before and behind as far as the fork, like a modern frock-coat. (Strabo, iv. 4. Gallica.) This explanation depends mainly upon the passage of Strabo cited above, who says, in describing the costume of the Gauls, that they left the hair to flow in its natural profusion, and wore a sagum and long trowsers ; but that, instead of tunics, they wore a vest with long sleeves, which was slit up before and behind as far as the fork — ami 8e x1^' vcav ffX"rTOvs x«pi8a>Toi;s tyepovai p.*XPl aifioiwv Kal yXowr&v — a description agreeing exactly with the costume of the figures introduced above, which are taken from two small bronzes found at Lyons, and exhibit all the characteristics here men- tioned, as well as some others pecu- liar to the ancient inhabitants of Gaul } viz. the profusion of hair arranged in the Gallic fashion (see the illus- tration *. CIRRUS 1., where an ex- ample is introduced upon a larger scale), and not unlike the style usually represented on the heads of Jupiter and ^Esculapius, a circum- stance which led the Count Caylus and Montfaucon into the error of mis- taking these figures for personations of those deities, — the shoes of the particular character worn by the Gauls (see GALLICS, where there is another example upon a larger scale), — the sagum on the shoulders of the right-hand figure, — the torquis round the neck of the other, — and the slit in front of the dress, which is very plainly indicated in both. In a 118 CARBASUS. CARCER. Pompeian caricature (inserted s. PICTOR) a corresponding slit is shown at the back of a similar vest. The trowsers alone are wanting to both figures ; which may arise from the caprice of the artist, or from the markings by which they were indi- cated in the originals having been lost or overlooked from the effects of age. The passage of Strabo has always been interpreted as if it meant a XtT(f>v of the kind called (rxurros (see the article TUNICA), but which only reached as far as the bottom of the belly in front, and the hip behind ; but it is clear that the word axiffrr^s has reference to the other two /*e%p* alSoiwv Kal yXovruiv, for if it was so very short, no slit would have been required. 2. A dress of similar description introduced at Rome by the emperor Aurelius Antoninus Bassianus, whence he received the nickname of Cara- calla (Anton. Caracall. 9. Aurel. Viet. Vit. CCES. 21. Id. Epit. 21.), which only differed from its Gallic original in being much longer, reach- ing down to the ankles, and some- times also furnished with a hood. From this time it came into general use amongst the common people, and was subsequently adopted by the Roman priesthood, amongst whom it is still retained under the name of sottana, a vest which precisely resembles the Gaulish jerkin of the preceding cuts, with the skirts lengthened to the feet. 3. Caracalla Major. The long caracalla of the Romans, last de- scribed. Edict Dioclet. 21. 4. Caracalla Minor. The short caracalla of the Gauls, first described. Edict. Dioclet. /. c. CAR'BASUS (wapTroo-os). A fine sort of flax produced in Spain ; whence the name is given to anything made from it; as a linen garment (Virg. £2n. viii. 34.) ; the awning stretched over the uncovered part of a theatre or amphitheatre, as a shield against the sun and rain (Lucret. vi. 109. see VELUM) ; the sail of a ship (Virg. JEn. iii. 357. VELUM) ; the Sibylline books, which were made of linen. Claud. B. Gil. 232., &c. CARBAT'IN^ (/capgortvcu or /capTTOTti/ot). The commonest of all the kinds of coverings for the feet in use amongst the ancients, and peculiar to the peasantry of southern countries, Asiatics, Greeks, and Italians. (Xen. Anab. iv. 5. 14. Pollux, vii. 22. Hesych. s. v.) They consisted of a square piece of undressed oxhide, placed under the foot, as a sole ; then turned up at the sides and over the toes, and fastened across the instep and round the lower part of the leg by thongs passing through holes on the edges, in the same way as with the crepida, on which account they are also called by that name in Ca- tullus (98. 4.). The single piece of hide, which in fact constitutes the whole shoe, serving both for sole and upper leather, also explains the meaning of the epithets by which they are described in Hesychius — fj.ov6irs\fj.ov and uovoSep/jLov, i. e. having the sole and upper leather all in one. Foot coverings of this sort are almost universally worn by the Italian pea- santry at this day, as represented in the illustration, from a sketch made by the writer, which is introduced here in preference to an ancient example, on account of the clear idea it gives of the material and manner in which they were made ; but the Greek vases and Pompeian paintings afford many specimens of the same ; as in Tischbein, 1. 14. Museo Bor- bon. xi. 25. and the right-hand figure at p. 31. of this work s. ANABOLIUM. CARCER (KopKopoi/). A prison or gaol. The Roman prisons were divided into three stories, one above the other, each of which was appro- priated to distinct purposes. The CARCER. CARCHESIUM. 119 lowermost (career inferior, jopyvpi]) was a dark underground dungeon, having no other access but a small aperture through the floor of the cell above, and was used not for deten- tion, but as the place of execution, into which the criminal was cast in order to undergo his sentence, if con- demned to death. The middle one (career interior), constructed imme- diately over the condemned cell, and on a level with the ground, but having, like the preceding, its only access through an aperture in the roof, served as a place of confinement where the punishment of imprison- ment in chains (custodia arcta) was expiated, or until the sentence, if a capital one, was about to be carried into effect. The upper one, forming a story above the ground, was pro- vided as a place of detention for those convicted of minor offences, or who were only condemned to an ordinary term of imprisonment (custodia corn- munis), in which the confinement was much less severe, the prisoners not being chained, nor excluded from the enjoyment of air and exercise. Thus we may understand with precision the sort of confinement to which Dolabella was subjected by Otho — neque arcta custodia, neque obscura (Tac. Hist. i. 88.) ; i. e. in the upper chamber of all, not in the close con- finement of the career interior (the upper one in engraving), nor in the dark underground dungeon below. All these three divisions were appa- rent in the gaol of Herculaneum, when it was excavated ; and the two lower ones still remain entire in the prisons constructed by Ancus and Servius, near the Roman Forum, a section of which is introduced above, showing their relative positions and plan of construction. The wall at the top, with the inscription, com- memorating the person by whom it was repaired, faced the forum, and enclosed the upper story, now de- cayed. 2. The stalls in the Circus where the chariots were stationed before the commencement of a race, and to which they returned after its conclu- sion. (Ovid, Her. xviii. 166. Auct. ad Herenn. iv. 3.) These were vaults closed in front by large wooden gates, and usually twelve in number (Cassiodor. Var. Ep. iii. 51.), whence the word is mostly used in the plural (Cic. Brut. 47. Virg. G. i. 512.) ; one for each chariot, and situated at the flat end of the race course under the oppidum, six on each side of the porta pompce, through which the pro- cession entered. Their relative position as regards the course is shown on the ground-plan of the CIRCUS (s. v.), on which they are marked A. A, and an elevation of four carceres, with their doors open (can- cell^, is here given, from a bas-relief in the British Museum. CARCHE'SIUM (Kapxjfftov). A drinking-cup of Greek invention, having a tall figure, slightly contracted at its sides, with slender handles which reached from the rim to the bottom (Macrob. Sat. v. 21.), and used as a 120 CARCHESIUM. CARDO. goblet for wine (Virg. Georg. iv. 380.), or milk. (Ovid, Met. vii. 247.) The figure in the engraving is from a painting in the tomb of Caius Cestius, one of the Epulones or citizens who had the duty of providing a sumptuous banquet in honour of Jupiter. The locality where it is re- presented, and its perfect correspond- ence with the description of Macro- bius, seem quite sufficient to identify the name and form. 2. An apparatus attached to the mast of a ship, just above the yard (Lucil. Sat. iii. 14. ed. Gerlach. Lucan, v. 418.), in which part of the tackle worked (Serv. ad. Virg. v. 77. Non. s. v. p. 546.), and nto which the seamen ascended to keep a look out, manage the sails, and dis- charge missiles, as seen in the il- lustration, from a painting in the Egyptian tombs. It thus answers in some respects to what our seamen call the " tops," but received its name from a real or fancied resemblance to the drinking-cup figured in the last wood-cut. 3. Carchesium versatile. The same apparatus, when made to revolve round the mast, and act as a crane for the loading and unloading of merchant vessels, by means of cross- bar or crane-neck inserted horizon- tally into it. (Vitruv. x. 2. 10. Schneider, ad 1} Our seamen make use of the yard arm in a manner not dissimilar. CARDINA'LIS. See SCAPUS. CARDINA'TUS. See CARDO 4. CARDO. A pivot and socket, forming an apparatus by means of which the doors of the ancients were fixed in their places, and made to revolve in opening and shutting ; thus answering the same purpose as the hinges more commonly in use amongst us, though the contrivance was entirely different in its character. (See GINGLYMTTS.) The Greeks dis- tinguished each of these parts by distinct names, using a'rp6<}>iySt for the pivot, and (rrpoQevs for the socket in which the pivot worked ; but the Latin writers commonly include the whole apparatus under the term cardo, though they sometimes apply it to each of the parts separately, and sometimes to the whole style of the door-leaf (scapus cardinalis\ that formed the axle by which the con- trivance acted. (Plin. H. N. xvi. 77. ib. 84. Id. xxxvi. 24. n. 8. Plaut. Asin. ii. 3. 8. Virg. JEn. ii. 480. Apul. Met. i. p. 9.) The figures in the annexed engraving will explain the nature of these objects, and the manner in which they were ap- plied. The two top ones on the right hand exhibit a pair of bronze shoes from Egyptian originals in the British Museum, which were fast- ened on to the top and bottom of a door-leaf, to act as pivots (arrp6- ycs), for the wooden axles were cased with bronze to bear the wear and tear (Virg. Cir. 222. ceratus cardo} ; the two lower ones on the same side are two boxes which were CARENUM. CARNIFICINA. 121 let into the sill and lintel of the door case to act as sockets ((TTpo<f>e?s), in which the pivots turned; the left-hand one, which is Egyptian, and of very hard stone, is now in the British Mu- seum, and was actually used with the pivot shoe drawn immediately above it : the right-hand one is of bronze, and was found in the sill of a door at Pompeii ; the teeth or flutings round the sides are to keep it firm in its place, and prevent it from turning in its setting with the working of the door ; the left-hand figure is an Egyp- tian door from Wilkinson, and shows the manner in which the apparatus was attached and worked. Compare the illustration s. ANTEPAGMENTUM. 2. The pin or pivot at each extre- mity of an axle in machinery, by means of which the axle revolves in the sockets which receive them, as in a wheel-barrow, roller, and similar contrivances. Vitruv. x. 14. 1. 3. A tenon in carpentry ; i. e. the head of a timber cut into a particular form for the purpose of fitting into a cavity of the same size and shape in another piece, and so forming a joint (Vitruv. x. 14. 2.); hence cardo se- curiculatus, a tenon in the form of an axe, or as we call it "dove-tailed." Vitruv. x. 10. 3. CARE'NUM. The must of new wine inspissated by boiling down to two-thirds of its original quantity. Pallad. Oct. 18. CARI'NA (rprfirw). The keel, or lowest piece of timber in the frame- work of a ship, running the whole length from stem to stern, and serv- ing as a foundation for the entire fabric (Cic. de Orat. iii. 46.) ; includ- ing also the false keel or " keelson." Liv. xxii. 20. Cses. B. G. iii. 13. CARNA'RIUM. A frame sus- pended from the ceiling, and fur- nished with hooks and nails, for the purpose of hanging up cured pro- visions, dried fruits, herbs, &c., similar to those still used in our kitchens. (Plaut. Capt. iv. 4. 6. Pet. Sat. 135. 4. Id. 136. 1. Plin. H. N. xviii. 60.) The illustration is from a painting at Pompeii, in which it is suspended from the ceiling of a tavern, and shows sausages, vege- tables, and such things hanging by strings or in nets. 2. In a more general sense, a safe or larder for the preservation of fresh viands. Plaut. Cure. ii. 3. 45. Plin. H.N. xix. 19. n. 3. CAR'NIFEX. The public exe- cutioner, who inflicted torture and scourging upon criminals, and exe- cuted the condemned by strangling them with a rope. Plaut. Capt. v. 4. 22. Suet. Nero, 54. CARNIFICFNA. The place in which criminals were tortured and executed (Liv. ii. 23. Suet. Tib. 62.) ; viz. an underground dungeon beneath all the other cells of the gaol. The illustration represents the interior of the camificina in the state prisons at Rome, constructed by Servius Tul- lius, after whom it was called the Tullianum, and the identical spot in which the friends and accomplices of Catiline were executed by order of Cicero. The criminal was let down into it by a rope through the aper- ture in the ceiling, and his body dragged up again by an iron hook (uncus) after the execution. The small door-way on the left hand, though ancient, does not belong to ]22 CARPENTUM. CARROBALLISTA. the original construction ; it gives admission to a low subterranean gal- lery, now filled with rubbish, but which takes a direction towards the Tiber, and was, perhaps, intended for carrying the dead bodies to the river, when they were not dragged out of the prison for exposure on the Ge- monian stairs. CARPEN'TUM. A two-wheeled carriage, with an awning over it, and curtains by which it might be closed in front (Prop. iv. 8. 23. Apul. Met. x. p. 224.) ; capable of containing two or three persons, usually drawn by a pair of mules (Lamprid. Heliog. 4.), and used by the Roman matrons and ladies of dis- tinction from remote antiquity. (Ov. Fast. i. 619. Liv. v. 25.) The illus- tration, which belongs to the earliest times is copied from an Etruscan painting (Micali, Italia avanti i Ro- mani, tav. 27.), and represents a bride and bridegroom, or a married pair, as Livy describes Lucumo and his wife on their arrival at Rome (sedens carpento cum uxore. Liv. i. 34.). 2. Carpentum funebre, or pompa- ticum. A state carpentum or carriage, in which the urn containing the ashes of the great, or their statues, were carried in the funeral procession. (Suet. Cal. 15. Id. Claud. 11. Isidor. Orig. xx. 12. 3.) These were like- wise covered carriages, constructed upon the same principle as the pre- ceding, but more showy and imposing in character ; as may be seen by the example, from a medal struck in commemoration of one of the Roman empresses, its use being further im- plied by the form, which, it will be observed, is made in imitation of a tomb. 3. A cart employed for agricul- tural purposes, and apparently of very common and general use ; for the same word is frequently applied in the sense of a cart-load, as of dung, &c., to indicate a certain quantity, which every one would immediately recognise, as in the English phrase, "a load." (Pallad. x. 1. Veget. Mul Med. iv. 3. Prof.) It was probably built like the first of the two specimens, but of coarser work- manship, and without the awning. CARPTOR. The carver ; a slave whose duty it was to carve the dishes at grand entertainments before they were handed round to the guests, Juv. Sat. ix. 110. CARRA'GO. A species of forti- fication adopted by many of the bar- barous nations with whom the Romans came into collision. It was effected by drawing up their waggons and war-chariots into a circle round the positions which they occupied. Amm. Marc. xxxi. 7. 7. Trebell. Gattien. 13. Veget, Mil iii. 10. CARROBALLIS'TA. A ballista mounted upon a carriage, and drawn by horses or mules for the conve- nience of transport from place to place, or to different points in the scene of action. (Veget. Mil iii. CARRUCA. CARTIBULTJM, 123 24. Id. ii. 25.) The illustration re- presents an engine of this description, as it is expressed on the Column of Antonine ; but it is too imperfect in point of detail, to give an adequate idea of the constructive principle upon which such machines acted. CARRU'CA or CARRU'CHA. A particular kind of carriage intro- duced at Rome under the Empire (at least mention of it first occurs in Pliny, and it subsequently becomes common in Suetonius, Martial, and others). Its precise form and cha- racter is a matter of mere conjecture ; but it is clearly distinguished from the covinus and essedum by Mar- tial (Ep. xii. 24.), and from the rheda by Lampridius. (Alex. Sev. 43.) It was at all times a vehicle of costly description, and highly orna- mented; at first, by carvings in bronze and ivory (Aurel. Vopisc. 46.), and afterwards by chasings in silver and gold. (Plin. H.N. xxxiii. 40. Mart. Ep. iii. 62.) This de- scription agrees so far with the figure in the annexed engraving, represent- ing the carriage of the prsefect of Rome from the Notitia Imperii, and in which the metal ornaments are very apparent. It may, therefore, by a plausible conjecture, be regarded as affording a type of these convey- ances, but the Latin writers certainly make use of the term at times in a general sense, without intending thereby to designate any particular build (as in Suet. Nero, 30. and Mart. Ep. iii. 47., where the same vehicle is indiscriminately termed carruca and rheda), and the word re- tained this usage in after times, for it contains the elements of the Italian carrozza, and our carriage, both of which are general expressions. 2. Carruca dormitoria. A close carruca (Scsevol. Dig. 34. 2. 11.); the carruca undique contecta of Isidorus, Orig. xx. 12. 3. CARRUCA'RIUS. Belonging to a carruca; an epithet applied to the coachman who drove it (Capitol. Maxim, jun. 4.), and to the horses or mules which drew it. (Ulp. Dig. 21. 1. 38.) See the preceding word and illustration. CARRUS. A small two-wheeled cart with boarded sides all round, used chiefly in the Roman armies for a commissariat and baggage wag- gon, as in the example, from the Column of Trajan, on which such vehicles are frequently represented. The name is of Celtic origin, as was the vehicle itself, having been ex- tensively employed by the ancient Britons, Gauls, Helvetii, &c. Sisenn. ap. Non. s.v. p. 125. Liv. x. 28. Caes. B. G. i. 3. CARTIB'ULUM. A particular kind of table, made of stone or mar- ble, with an oblong square slab for the top, and supported by a single central pedestal, or after the manner B 2 124 CARYATIDES. CASA. of those now called console tables by our upholsterers. It was not used as a dining-table, but as an orna- mental slab or sideboard for holding the plate and vases belonging to the household, and used to stand on one side of the atrium with the vessels arranged upon it. (Varro, L. L. v. 125.) This account from Varro is accurately illustrated by the engraving, which represents a marble table of the kind, as it was discovered on the margin of the impluvium in the house of the Nereids at Pompeii. Behind it is a fountain, and under- neath it there is a sort of sink, divided into two compartments, into which the drainings or residue from the vessels were emptied before they were put upon the table. CARYAT'IDES ( KapwmScs). Female figures employed instead of columns by the ancient architects to support an entablature, as seen in the annexed engraving, which represents the portico attached to the temple of Pandrosos at Athens. Vitruv. i. 1. 5. CASA. Generally a cottage; understood in the same latitude of meaning which we apply to that word in our own language ; for in- stance : — 1. A cottage proper (Vitruv. ii. 1. 3. and 5. Pet. Sat. 115. 6.); the first regular effort in building of the pastoral ages, and which continued afterwards as the constant model for the residence of a village population. Of this description was the thatched cottage of Romulus on the Capitoline hill (casa JRomuli, Vitruv. ii. 1. Pet. Fragm. 2 1 . 6.), and those of the abo- riginal inhabitants of Latium, of which the illustration here introduced may be regarded as an authentic and highly curious example. It is copied from an earthenware vase, now pre- served amongst the Egyptian and other antiquities in the British Mu- seum, but originally employed as a sepulchral urn, which was discovered in the year 1817 amongst several others in the form of temples, hel- mets, &c., at Marino, near the ancient Alba Longa, imbedded in a sort of white earth under a thick stratum of volcanic lava (the Italian peperino), which flowed from the Alban mount before its eruptions became extinct ; previously to which period these vases must in consequence have been depo- sited there, an irresistible proof of their great antiquity. Visconti, Let- tera al Sigr. Giuseppe Carnevali, sopra alcuni Vasi sepolcrali rinvenuti nella vicinanza della anticaAlba Longa. Roma. 1817. 2. A small country-house (Mart. Ep. vi. 43.) ; built, as we should say, in cottage fashion, upon a far less grand or magnificent scale than the regular villa or country mansion, as represented in the annexed engraving, from a painting at Pompeii, which CASEUS. CASTELLUM. 125 affords a good idea of the small Roman country-house, with its court- yard, outbuildings, and live stock. When Martial (Ep. xii. 66.) used the words domus and casa as convertible terms, it is purposely and pointedly, in order to insinuate that the domus or town-house was but a poor and ill- built one ; i. e. no better than a casa or cottage. 3. A bower or rustic arbour, made of osiers and branches, and sometimes covered with vines, as in the example from the ancient mosaic of Prseneste. Tibull. ii. 1. 24, 4. A sort